Comprehensive Notes on Complex Sentences and Clauses (Units 1–5)

Complex and Relative Clauses: Comprehensive Study Notes

  • Purpose and scope

    • This unit introduces complex and compound-complex sentences, focusing on clauses, their types, and how to use adjective, adverb, and noun clauses effectively.
    • Emphasizes practical applications through warming-up activities, pair work, and individual tasks.

  • What is a clause?

    • A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a main verb.
    • A sentence is a group of words with a subject and main verb that conveys a complete concept.
    • Independent clause: can stand alone as a simple sentence; expresses a complete thought.
    • Dependent (subordinate) clause: cannot convey a complete meaning by itself and must be embedded in a complex sentence with an independent clause.
    • Key distinction: independent clauses can stand alone; dependent clauses cannot.

  • Types of clauses (two main types)
    1) Independent/Main Clause

    • Has a subject and a finite verb; can stand alone as a sentence; conveys a complete thought.
    • Example: I will buy a car next month.
      2) Dependent/Subordinate Clause
    • Contains a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; depends on an independent clause for meaning.
    • Example: If I have enough money

  • Types of subordinate clauses

    • Relative/Adjective clause
    • Adverb clause
    • Noun clause
    • In this unit, initial focus is on adjective clauses, followed by adverb clauses (eight common types) and noun clauses in later sections.

  • Adjective clause (Relative clause)

    • Definition: Modifies, explains, or adds essential information about a noun or pronoun in the main clause; functions like an adjective.
    • It is introduced by relative pronouns.
    • Relative pronouns: who, which, that, whom, whose
    • who/whom: refer to people (subjective/Objective cases)
    • which: refer to things, places, animals, ideas
    • that: can refer to people, places, things, animals, ideas (used in both subjective and objective cases; often in restrictive clauses)
    • whose: possessive; refers to people, things, places, animals, ideas; used in possessive case only

  • Relative pronoun cases

    • Subjective (Nominative) case: who, which, that (when the pronoun is the subject of the relative clause)
    • Objective (Accusative) case: whom, which, that (when the pronoun is the object of the relative clause)
    • Possessive (Genitive) case: whose (possessive)
    • Examples of cases:
    • Subjective: The lady who learns English at Atarud A Lingua is intelligent.
    • Objective: The man whom we admire a lot is our grammar teacher.
    • Possessive: The student whose father is a doctor got a high score.

  • Replacing 'whose' with 'noun + of + whom/which'

    • Structure: noun + of + whom/which can replace 'whose' in possessive clauses.
    • Examples:
    • The student father of whom is a doctor got a high score on TOEFL iBT exam.
    • The car color of which is black belongs to my brother.
    • This replacement is a more formal alternative to 'whose'.

  • Combining two simple sentences with 'whose'

    • Example: The girl learns English at Atarud A Lingua. Her father works with an NGO.
    • Result: The girl whose father works with an NGO learns English at Atarud A Lingua.

  • Possessive and restrictive vs non-restrictive adjective clauses

    • Restrictive (essential/defining): Provides essential information about the noun; no commas.
    • Non-restrictive (non-essential/ non-defining): Adds extra information about a noun; usually set off by commas.
    • Non-restrictive clauses typically refer to proper nouns; commas are used before/after the clause depending on its position (mid-sentence or end).
    • Key rule: If removing the clause would make the main sentence lose essential meaning, the clause is restrictive. If removing it leaves the main sentence clear and complete, it is non-restrictive.
    • Examples:
    • Restrictive: The man who works with Azizi Bank lives in our neighborhood. (essential info about 'man')
    • Non-restrictive: Kamal, who works with Azizi Bank, lives in our neighborhood. (extra info about Kamal)

  • Comma usage in restrictive vs non-restrictive clauses

    • Restrictive: No commas around the clause.
    • Non-restrictive: Commas before and after the clause if it’s in the middle of the main clause; or a comma after the main clause if the clause is at the end.
    • Examples:
    • Restrictive: The cellphone which he bought last week is iPhone 14 Pro Max. (essential info about which cellphone)
    • Non-restrictive: The iPhone 14 Pro Max, which he bought yesterday, is a modern cellphone. (extra info about a specific iPhone)

  • Connective (sentential) adjective clauses

    • Do not modify a specific noun; instead, they modify the entire idea of the main clause.
    • They are introduced by 'which' and are always preceded by a comma.
    • Examples:
    • We went to a beautiful place last Friday, which was a lot of fun.
    • He got a high score on TOEFL iBT exam, which was a big success.
    • They can refer to ideas or actions rather than nouns.

  • Replacing connective clauses with relative pronouns in restrictive clauses

    • In restrictive clauses, the connective clause can sometimes be replaced by a relative pronoun with a preposition (or by omitting the preposition in casual speech).
    • Example: The city where I used to live is called San Antonio. (restrictive: which/that can be used with preposition in various positions)

  • Using prepositions in adjective clauses

    • Prepositional placement options: at the beginning of the clause (formal) or at the end (informal).
    • Formal: The teacher from whom we learn English is a nice person. / The country to which he traveled is located in Central Asia.
    • Informal: The teacher we learn English from is a nice person. / The country he traveled to is located in Central Asia.
    • With 'that' in restrictive clauses, prepositions at the beginning are often avoided; however, in formal usage, you can still place a preposition at the beginning when using 'which' or 'whom'.
    • Examples:
    • Bamyan Province, to which he traveled, is a historical place. (formal)
    • Bamyan Province, which he traveled to, is a historical place. (informal)

  • Replacing conjunctions (When/Where) with which/that in non-restrictive vs restrictive clauses

    • In non-restrictive clauses, you can replace 'when' with 'which' or 'that' and use appropriate prepositions (e.g., 'in which', 'on which').
    • In restrictive clauses, replacement rules depend on whether a preposition is used and whether 'which' or 'that' is chosen; forms like 'the city I used to live in' are common.
    • Examples of options include: The city where I used to live; The city in which I used to live; The city I used to live in.

  • Expressions of quantity in adjective clauses

    • Expressions like a lot of, much of, many of, a few of, most of can be used in both restrictive and non-restrictive adjective clauses.
    • They can be used with subjective, objective, and possessive cases.
    • Use 'of whom' for people and 'of which' for things, places, animals, ideas, and qualities.
    • Comma rules depend on position (middle of main clause vs after main clause).
    • Examples:
    • All of them wanted to join Atarud A Lingua. → He welcomed the students, all of whom wanted to join Atarud A Lingua.
    • Some of them were really old. → He brought the books, some of which were really old.

  • Indefinite pronouns modified by restrictive adjective clauses

    • Indefinite pronouns can be modified by restrictive adjective clauses; using a relative pronoun to refer to indefinite pronouns is acceptable in subject/object/possessive cases.
    • Avoid using personal pronouns as the antecedent when possible; instead, name or title the antecedent.
    • Examples:
    • I know someone who/that is secretly in love with you.
    • Is there anyone whom/that we can talk to about the project?
    • So far, I have met nobody whose face is as charming as yours.

  • Noun clauses (overview)

    • A noun clause functions as a noun; it can be the subject, object, complement of a main verb, or object of a preposition.
    • It cannot contain an interrogative form inside the clause.
    • Tense and mood in the noun clause can shift; the main clause tense may influence the noun clause tense.
    • Common introductory words: what, which, whatever, whichever, who, whoever, whom, how, when, where, why, if, whether, that, the way.
    • Examples:
    • What Jamal did impressed me a lot. (subject of ‘impressed’)
    • I admire Jamal. / I admire what Jamal did. (noun clause as object)
    • She thinks about Jamal. / She thinks about what Jamal did for her. (noun clause as object of preposition)
    • She is into Jamal. / She is into whatever Jamal does. (noun clause as object of preposition or complement)

  • Noun clauses: as subject, object, and after prepositions

    • Subject: Whatever she said made him angry. / Whatever she says makes him angry.
    • Object: He forgot what I told him yesterday. / I forgot what I told him yesterday.
    • Object of a preposition: She objects to why girls are not allowed to get education. / He is excited about how practically we are taught.

  • Parallelism (syntactic balance in lists and phrases)

    • Ensure the same parts of speech on both sides of a conjunction in lists or series.
    • Common errors involve mixing verb forms in lists (e.g., cleaning, doing, preparing vs. cleaning, to do, to prepare).
    • Correct forms should maintain consistent structure: to + verb (infinitive) for all items or -ing form for all items in a list.
    • Examples:
    • She plans to clean the house, do the laundry and prepare the dinner. (Correct: all infinitive forms)
    • She plans to clean the house, to do the laundry, and to prepare the dinner. (Correct: all infinitive forms)

Unit 2: Adjective Clause Usage and Variations

  • Adjective Clause (Review of Differences)

    • Restrictive (defining): provides essential information; no comma before/after; may use 'that'.
    • Non-restrictive (non-defining): adds extra information; uses commas; cannot use 'that' in some cases.
    • Connective (sentential) adjective clause: discusses the whole idea or action; uses 'which'; always comma-delimited.
    • Examples to differentiate:
    • The cellphone which/that was on sale (restrictive)
    • The cellphone, which was on sale, (non-restrictive)

  • Replacement of 'when'/'where' with 'which'/'that'

    • In non-restrictive clauses, replacement is possible with prepositional forms (where/in which, in which, etc.).
    • In restrictive clauses, replacements vary (the city where I used to live vs the city in which I used to live vs the city that I used to live in).

  • Reducing adjective clauses (reduced relative clauses)

    • Reduction is possible when the relative pronoun is in subjective case (e.g., who/which/that), leading to a modifying phrase.
    • Not possible when the relative pronoun is in objective or possessive case.
    • Reductions can apply to restrictive and non-restrictive adjective clauses, but not connective clauses.
    • Examples:
    • The girls who learn English at Atarud A Lingua are intelligent. → The girls learning English at Atarud A Lingua are intelligent. (subjective case reduction)
    • Joe Biden, who is the president of the USA, is an old guy. → Joe Biden, the president of the USA, is an old guy. (appositive style)

  • Omission of relative pronouns

    • Omission is possible in some restrictive clauses when the pronoun is used in the objective case and the verb is in a compatible form; not allowed in subjective or possessive cases.
    • Examples:
    • The man whom we saw at the party last night was very handsome. → The man we saw at the party last night was very handsome. (omission possible)
    • The book which/that he studied last night was interesting. → The book he studied last night was interesting. (omission possible)
    • Jamal, whom I know much better than you, is a nice person. → Jamal, I know much better than you, is a nice person. (incorrect; omitted pronoun here is flagged)

  • Conjunctive adverbs in adjective clauses: when/where/why

    • 'When' and 'where' can be used in restrictive or non-restrictive adjective clauses as a conjunctive adverb (not as pronouns) (objective case only).
    • 'Why' is used to describe a reason or purpose; cannot be used in subjective case or non-restrictive clauses; may replace with 'that' in some cases.
    • Examples:
    • Kabul is the city where my sons were born. (restrictive use of 'where')
    • Kabul is the city where has a lot of population. (incorrect - needs to be rephrased)
    • The reason why/that she didn't come to class yesterday was her sickness. (why/that difference explained)

  • Replacing conjunctive adverbs with relative pronouns

    • Replacing 'when'/'where' with 'which/that' is possible in some cases, using prepositions to maintain meaning (e.g., 'at which', 'in which', 'to which').
    • Explanations include formal vs informal registers.

  • Expressions of quantity in adjective clauses (continued)

    • As in Unit 1, you can use 'all of', 'most of', etc., with proper pronoun agreement and comma placement when the clause is in the middle or end of the main clause.

  • Indefinite pronouns and adjectives in noun clauses (Unit 2 focus)

    • Review: e.g., 'someone', 'anyone', 'everyone' modified by restrictive clauses; but avoid personal pronouns as antecedents where possible.

  • Noun clauses: further examples and usage

    • Noun clauses as subjects (Whatever she said) and as objects (What I told him yesterday).
    • Interrogative content embedded inside noun clauses cannot carry interrogative form as the main structure; the embedded clause remains declarative.

Unit 3: Adverb Clauses (Time, Place, Cause, Purpose, Concession, Condition, Comparison, Reduced)

  • Adverb clause basics

    • An adverb clause modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb in the main clause.
    • It is a dependent clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction (not a stand-alone sentence).
    • If an adverb clause is used first in a sentence, it should be followed by a comma; otherwise, no comma is required.
    • Common connectors include when, where, why, because, since, before, after, as, while, although, though, etc.

  • Adverb clause of time

    • Modifies time of action/state in the main clause.
    • Connectors include when, before, after, since, as, until, by the time, as soon as, etc.
    • Rules: if used first in the sentence, a comma follows; if in middle, typically no comma.
    • Examples:
    • I walked for a few minutes before I arrived in the classroom.
    • Before arriving in the classroom, I walked for a few minutes.

  • Prepositions and time: prepositions usage in time clauses

    • Formal options: in which, at which, on which, etc.
    • Informal options: where, when, etc. with position of preposition after the clause.

  • Adverb clause of place

    • Modifies place of action/state.
    • Connectors: where, wherever.
    • Examples:
    • You can sit where you want. / Wherever he goes, they'll find him.

  • Adverb clause of cause and effect (reason and result)

    • Explains cause or reason leading to a result.
    • Connectors: because, since, due to, now that, as, etc.; transitions like therefore, thus, consequently express result.
    • Example patterns:
    • I had a headache last night because/of having a headache. (various valid constructions)
    • Now that we know advanced grammar, our English is strong.
    • Transitions for cause/effect:
    • because, since, due to, due to the fact that, consequently, therefore, thus, etc.

  • Adverb clause of purpose

    • Expresses purpose; answers: why or for which purpose?
    • Infinitive forms (to + v1, in order to, so as to) serve as a governing basis for the clause.
    • Connectors include in order to, so as to, to, in order that, so that, lest, with a view to, with the intention of, with the aim of, with the object of, for the purpose of.
    • Examples:
    • We have joined Atarud A Lingua in order to improve our English.
    • We have joined Atarud A Lingua so that we can improve our English.

  • Adverb clause of contrast (concession)

    • Shows a contrast between two ideas; introduces unexpected results.
    • Connectors include although, even though, though, despite, in spite of, despite the fact that, yet, but anyway, however, nonetheless.
    • Examples show multiple ways to express the same contrast.
    • Note: Right use of punctuation and ordering is important to avoid run-ons.

  • Adverb clause of condition

    • States a condition for the action/state in the main clause.
    • Connectors: if, whether, only if, even if, providing that, provided that, unless, in case that, in the event that, etc.
    • Special cases: emphatic 'do' with only-if at the start; 'whether or not' variations; 'or else' usage.
    • Examples illustrate both real and formal conditional forms; including inversion rules for beginning with certain phrases.

  • Adverb clause of comparison

    • Two types: degree (than) and manner (the way).
    • Degree: uses 'than' to compare degree.
    • Examples: She is older than she looks. Your English is better than I thought.
    • Manner: uses 'as' or 'the way' to compare manner; common in spoken English is 'the way'.
    • Examples: They served the country the way people expected. As people expected, they couldn't serve the country.

  • Reduced adverb clauses

    • Reduction to a modifying phrase (ing-form) when the subject is the same in both clauses.
    • Applies to time, cause/effect, contrast, and condition clauses.
    • Examples:
    • While he was coming to Atarud A Lingua, he ran into an old friend. → Coming to Atarud A Lingua, he ran into an old friend.
    • After I did my homework, I took a shower. → After doing my homework, I took a shower.

  • Important guidelines for tense and agreement (Unit 3-4 themes)

    • No future tense in adverb clause of time when the main clause is in future tense; use present tense in the adverb clause to indicate future action.
    • In mixed constructions, tense agreement rules apply as explained in examples (e.g., simple future in main clause requires present in the adverb clause).

Unit 4: Advanced Adverb Clauses, Inversion, and Parallelism

  • Inversion basics and rules

    • Inversion is used for emphasis, formality, or special constructions (e.g., conditional clauses, negative adverbs at the start).
    • Examples show: Should you need anything else, I will bring it for you. Were he rich, he would travel around the world.
    • Negative adverbs at the start: Never has he encountered such trouble before. Rarely does she watch Indian movies.
    • Phrases starting with 'only' (only if/only when/only after, etc.) can trigger inversion when at the start of a sentence.
    • Inversion rules also apply to not only/but also constructions, and other emphasis-based patterns.

  • Inversion with 'not only… but also' and related patterns

    • Inversion can apply to paired conjunctions for emphasis.
    • Example: Not only did she encourage me to work on such a big project, but she was the one who prayed for my success.

  • Inversion with prepositional phrases

    • When a prepositional phrase starts a sentence, inversion often occurs in the predicate (e.g., On the table is the new laptop.).

  • Summary: Inversion and parallelism in complex sentences

    • Inversion is a tool for stylistic emphasis across conditional, negative-fronted, or 'only' constructions.
    • Parallelism: keep parallel structure in compound and complex sentences to avoid faulty constructions.

  • Parallelism: detailed guidelines (Unit 7-8 themes)

    • Lists should maintain the same syntactic form for every item (e.g., [to + verb] or [-ing form] across items).
    • Examples contrasting correct vs incorrect parallelism show how to restructure sentences for balance.

  • Punctuation and sentence balance

    • Use comma placement to clarify meaning in restrictive vs non-restrictive clauses; use semicolons to separate long, multi-clause lists.

Unit 5: Noun Clauses, Advanced Noun Clause Usage, and Compound-Complex Sentences

  • Noun clauses as grammatical units

    • A noun clause can function as a subject, object, or object of a preposition.
    • It behaves as a single unit and is singular in number; ensure subject-verb agreement accordingly in the main clause.
    • Interrogative forms inside noun clauses are not used; the content is declarative.
    • Common introductory words: what, which, whatever, whichever, who, whoever, whom, how, when, where, why, if, whether, that, the way.
    • Examples:
    • Whatever she said made him angry. (subject of the main verb)
    • He forgot what I told him yesterday. (direct object of 'forgot')
    • I am thinking about what Jamal did for me. (object of preposition)

  • Noun clause as subject, object, and object of preposition (structures)

    • Subject: Whatever she said makes him angry. / Whatever she said will make him angry.
    • Object: He forgot what I told him yesterday. / What I told him yesterday was forgotten by him.
    • Object of preposition: She objects to what she did yesterday. / He is interested in whatever he does for a living.

  • Noun clauses in question and declarative forms

    • Short forms: Did whatever she said make him angry? / Does whatever she says make him angry?
    • Interrogative questions inside noun clauses: Why did whatever she said make him angry?

  • Using a noun clause inside adjective/adverb clauses

    • Noun clauses can act as the object of an adjective clause or as the subject/object of an adverb clause.
    • Examples:
    • Those who think that it is easy to become a senior English teacher should think again. (noun clause as complement of 'think')
    • Although what he said made me angry, I tried not to lose my head. (noun clause as object of 'said' within concessive clause)

  • Appositive and noun clause reductions

    • A noun clause can be reduced into appositive nouns or phrases (e.g., Hafiz Shirazi, who was a great poet → Hafiz Shirazi, a great poet).
    • Appositive reductions can move inside or outside the noun phrase depending on positioning.

  • Compound-Complex sentences (overview)

    • A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
    • Types of arrangements (illustrative examples):
    • Independent + Independent + Dependent
    • Dependent + Independent + Independent
    • Independent + Dependent + Independent
    • These sentences can become lengthy; punctuate carefully to avoid run-ons.
    • Examples illustrate multiple clauses connected with conjunctions and transitions.

  • Final notes on Advanced Sentence Structures

    • Mastery of these structures improves academic writing and allows complex ideas to be expressed in a single sentence.
    • Practice with warming-up activities, pair work, and structured exercises to reinforce these rules.

  • Practical study tips (summary)

    • Distinguish clause types by function in sentence (subject, object, or modifier).
    • Identify and practice restrictive vs non-restrictive clauses using comma rules.
    • Practice reduction of relative clauses using the rule about subjective vs objective possessive pronouns.
    • Use prepositions in adjective clauses carefully, with the option to move the preposition to the end or the front depending on formality.
    • When using noun clauses, track tense agreement with the main clause and ensure no interrogative forms within the noun clause.
    • For adverb clauses, memorize the eight common types and their connectors; practice reduced and inverted forms for advanced fluency.

  • Quick reference: common connectors and forms

    • Time: when, before, after, as, as soon as, while, until, since, by the time, as long as, once
    • Place: where, wherever, in which, to which
    • Cause/Effect: because, since, due to, therefore, consequently, as a result
    • Purpose: in order to, so as to, to, in order that, so that
    • Contrast: although, though, even though, despite, in spite of, whereas, while
    • Condition: if, unless, provided that, providing that, in case that, even if
    • Comparison: than, as, the way
    • Noun clauses: what, which, who, whom, how, when, where, why, that, whether, if, the way

  • Practice prompts (sample tasks to solidify learning)

    • Identify clause types in provided sentences and label as [Independent/Dependent], [Adjective/Adverb/Noun Clause].
    • Convert restrictive adjective clauses to non-restrictive with appropriate comma usage and vice versa.
    • Reduce adjective clauses to modifying phrases where possible, noting when such reductions are not allowed (objective/possessive cases).
    • Practice replacing conjunctive adverbs with relative pronouns in sentences with proper prepositional forms.
    • Build complex sentences of varying lengths using noun clauses as subjects, objects, and objects of prepositions, ensuring correct tense alignment and punctuation.

  • Important reminders

    • Always check whether removing an adjective clause changes the essential meaning (restrictive vs non-restrictive).
    • When using 'whose', remember it is a possessive; you can alternatively replace with 'noun + of + whom/which' in formal writing.
    • Be cautious with 'connective' clauses; they should not alter a noun in the main clause; they modify the entire idea.
    • In formal writing, prefer placing prepositions at the front of the clause (to/for/from which) rather than at the end; in informal writing, ending with a preposition is common.

  • Summary takeaway

    • Understanding clauses and their types is essential for creating precise, nuanced English sentences.
    • The interplay among restrictive/non-restrictive, connective, and reduced forms allows flexible expression of information, emphasis, and nuance in both written and spoken English.

Title

Comprehensive Notes on Complex, Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses (Units 1–5)