Quote: "Only one thing holds this country from war today; that is the rising opposition of the American people. Our system of democracy… is on test today as it has been never before."
— Charles Lindbergh, Des Moines, Iowa, September 1, 1941
Learning Objective: Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation's proper role in the world.
Disillusionment and Isolationism Post-World War I
Context of the 1920s and 1930s:
Disillusionment stemming from World War I.
America's fear of being drawn into another European conflict due to Europe's postwar problems and communism in the Soviet Union.
The decision of Congress to refuse joining the League of Nations, leading to a retreat into isolationism.
The United States' foreign policy moves:
Transition from Gilded Age policies to unilateralism rather than pure isolationism:
Military intervention.
Private investment overseas.
Occasional treaty signings.
Despite efforts, the U.S. failed to avoid another world war.
Post-World War I Agreements
Republican Presidents of the 1920s:
Promoted peace and reduced defense expenditures through disarmament treaties.
Washington Conference (1921):
Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes initiated talks on naval disarmament.
Aim: Stabilize the U.S. Navy size and resolve Pacific conflicts.
Attendees: Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal.
Agreements reached:
Five-Power Treaty:
Naval ratio of battleships:
United States: 5
Great Britain: 5
Japan: 3
France: 1.67
Italy: 1.67
Britain and the U.S. agreed not to fortify their Pacific possessions; no limits on Japan.
Four-Power Treaty:
U.S., France, Great Britain, and Japan agreed to respect each other's territories in the Pacific.
Nine-Power Treaty:
All nine nations agreed to uphold the Open Door Policy and ensure China's territorial integrity.
Kellogg-Briand Pact:
Initiated by women activists, notably Jane Addams, who won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 for her efforts.
Signed in 1928 to outlaw war; nearly all nations participated.
Limitations:
Allowed defensive wars.
Lacked enforcement mechanisms against violators.
Business and Diplomacy
Republican Policy: Promote prosperity at home through pro-business practices linked to foreign diplomacy.
Latin America Relations:
Mexico's 1917 Constitution: Required government ownership of minerals and oil.
U.S. ambassador Dwight Morrow negotiated to protect American investments.
Coolidge left troops in Nicaragua and Haiti but withdrew from the Dominican Republic.
U.S. investments in Latin America doubled (1919-1929).
Middle East Engagement:
Growing recognition of oil reserves.
Secretary Hughes won oil-drilling rights for American companies despite British dominance.
Tariff Policies:
Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922): Increased import duties by 25%, damaging European economies and indirectly contributing to the Great Depression.
War Debts and Reparations
U.S. transitioned from debtor to creditor nation after World War I, issuing loans exceeding $10 billion to Allies.
Political Pressure:
Harding and Coolidge held that Britain and France must repay debts.
Allies argued against repayment, citing losses and U.S. tariffs' roles in their economic recovery.
Dawes Plan (1924):
Compromise facilitating reparations payments through a cycle:
U.S. banks loaned Germany money.
Germany paid reparations to Allies.
Allies repaid U.S. debts with received reparations.
Post-1929 market crash disrupted this arrangement.
Legacy:
Finland was the only nation to fully repay debts, breeding resentment in both Europe and America.
Increased American inclination towards isolationism.
Herbert Hoover's Foreign Policy
Hoover’s view aligned with isolationist sentiment; reluctance to enter firm commitments for global security in the 1930s.
Latin America Relations:
Enhanced good-neighbor policies to signal friendship.
Withdrawal of troops from Nicaragua and Haiti.
Japanese Aggression in Manchuria:
Japan invaded Manchuria (1931), violating the League of Nations' principles.
U.S. response, Stimson Doctrine (1932):
Repeated refusal to recognize regimes established through force.
The League condemned the invasion but was ineffective in enforcement.
Franklin Roosevelt's Policies (1933-1939)
Good Neighbor Policy:
Promised non-intervention in Latin America to foster goodwill.
Nullified the Platt Amendment (1934) impacting Cuba's foreign policy.
Economic Diplomacy:
Recognized the Soviet Union in 1933 to boost trade.
Passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) granting Philippine independence by 1946.
Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (1934):
Gave the president authority to reduce tariffs by up to 50% reciprocally with other countries.
Rise of Fascism and Militarism
Economic hardship during the Great Depression led to fascism in Italy and militarism in Japan and Germany.
Italy's Fascism:
Led by Benito Mussolini, capitalized on post-war discontent, establishing a totalitarian regime.
Germany’s National Socialism:
Adolf Hitler capitalized on resentment from World War I outcomes and rallied nationalistic sentiments against Jews and other minorities.
Japanese Expansionism:
Sought control over China and Southeast Asia, leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937) marked by the Nanjing Massacre.
American Isolationists
American isolationism rose post-World War I, aiming to prevent future foreign entanglements.
Neutrality Acts: Legislative measures enacted to maintain U.S. neutrality by forbidding arms shipments and loans to belligerents and limiting American involvement in international conflicts.
Spanish Civil War: U.S. reluctance to intervene due to neutrality laws allowed fascist Franco to prevail.
America First Committee (1940): Formed by isolationists opposing U.S. involvement in World War II, featuring prominent orators like Charles Lindbergh.
Prelude to Another War
Aggressions by fascist dictators heightened concerns in Britain and France:
Mussolini's invasion of Ethiopia (1935) and Hitler's remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936).
The fall of Czechoslovakia and the efficiency of blitzkrieg tactics demonstrated the failure of European appeasement policies.
Quarantine Speech: Roosevelt suggested action against aggressors but faced public backlash due to isolationist sentiments.
Outbreak of World War II
The signing of the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact shocked the West before Germany's invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, marking the beginnings of World War II.
American neutrality shifted after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, leading to a formal declaration of war the following day.
Hoover-FDR Policies (WOR): Good Neighbor policy, Pan-American conferences, recognition of the Soviet Union, independence of the Philippines, reciprocal trade agreements.
Militarist/Fascist Aggression (WOR): Japanese aggression in Manchuria, Stimson Doctrine, Axis powers, Benito Mussolini, Fascist Party, Nazi Party, Adolf Hitler.
Isolationist Response (WOR): Gerald Nye, Neutrality Acts, America First Committee.
FDR's Response (WOR): Quarantine speech, cash and carry, Selective Training and Service Act, destroyers-for-bases deal, third term, Wendell Willkie, four freedoms, Lend-Lease Act, Atlantic Charter, Pearl Harbor.