Gender, Confilct, and Peacebuilding
Overview
Week four content condensed into two lectures to help with midterm study; focus on gender and its impact on conflict and peacebuilding.
Central aim: understand how gender dynamics shape conflict, violence, humanitarian response, and peace processes.
Key Terms
Gender-Based Violence (GBV): umbrella term for violence against people because of gender; includes child marriage, domestic violence, sexual violence, and more.
Conflict-Related Sexual Violence (CRSV): sexual violence linked to conflict, used as a tactic or by actors within conflict; includes rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, forced abortion, forced sterilization, etc.
Triangle of violence: violence caused by a combination of direct violence, cultural norms, and structural (legal/policy) issues in society; GBV arises when cultural and structural factors enable direct harm.
Positive peace: a concept advocating for the removal of structural violence and the building of just and sustainable peace, beyond merely stopping armed conflict.
Women, Peace, and Security (WPS): framework recognizing that women’s equal participation in peace processes improves sustainability and outcomes.
Gender-Based Violence (GBV)
GBV affects women and girls disproportionately but can affect men and boys as well.
GBV encompasses a range of abuses that occur due to gender norms and structural inequalities, including child marriage and domestic/sexual violence.
In conflict contexts, GBV is often exacerbated by weak legal protections, impunity, and cultural norms.
Conflict-Related Sexual Violence (CRSV)
UN definition: any type of sexual violence perpetrated against women, men, girls, or boys that is directly or indirectly linked to conflict, including rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, forced abortion, and forced sterilization.
CRSV is often used as a tool of ethnic cleansing or war tactics by various armed groups, including terrorist organizations.
Bosnia example illustrates CRSV as a widespread tactic during conflict, as a means of exerting power and control.
Bosnia and the Bosnian War: Case Study
Background: Former Yugoslavia comprised Serbs, Croats, Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks), Albanians, Slovenes, etc., under Tito’s regime; tensions reemerged after Tito’s death in 1980.
1991–1992: Independence movements in Croatia/Slovenia; Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence; Bosnian Serbs opposed independence.
1992–1995: Bosnian War; ethnic cleansing conducted by Bosnian Serb forces; ~11,000 people killed, at least 70% Bosniaks killed.
Widespread CRSV: estimates range from 20,000 to 50,000 women raped during the war; victims imprisoned in gyms, hotels, camps; violent acts included rape with weapons or broken glass.
International response: ICTY (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia) first to convict rape as torture and sexual enslavement as crimes against humanity.
Challenges in justice: slow, inadequate systems, impunity, survivors facing barriers to justice and access to treatment; lasting physical/psychological trauma and, for some, pregnancy.
Core takeaway: CRSV exists due to pre-existing gender inequality and is committed by those tasked with protecting civilians; addressing CRSV requires addressing both violence and structural gender inequality.
UN Framework and Mechanisms for CRSV Prevention and Response
Prevention at multiple levels: target underlying gender discrimination and inequality.
Government/institutional level: establish policies/procedures to prevent CRSV; education for security forces and armed groups; engage with communities for early warning and survivor support.
Justice and deterrence: promote investigation and prosecution through formal justice systems to deter future crimes.
Peacekeepers’ roles in CRSV prevention: monitoring/reporting, protection of civilians, mapping risk areas, deploying to deter/stop violations, supporting survivor services, aiding negotiation processes, and promoting accountability.
Advocacy and political leadership: senior UN leadership to address CRSV in mediation, ceasefires, and peace agreements; raise awareness to change cultural norms that normalize violence.
Awareness campaigns: radio messages, community events, campaigns to shift attitudes toward CRSV and gender norms.
Capacity building: train and partner with national authorities, community leaders, and civil society to strengthen responses to CRSV.
End impunity: support national investigations/prosecutions; promote safe participation of victims/witnesses in judicial processes; push for strong national policies and legal frameworks.
Role of Peacekeepers in CRSV Prevention and Response
Monitoring and reporting: document trends; share with Security Council to inform responses.
Protection and deterrence: map at-risk areas; deploy to prevent violations; support victims.
Support to dialogue and peace efforts: assist in negotiations; ensure CRSV concerns are addressed in peace processes.
Accountability and justice: help implement action plans; promote accountability for perpetrators.
Advocacy and awareness: raise SRV (sexual violence) issues at political levels; keep CRSV on the peace process agenda.
Capacity building and partnerships: work with government authorities, civil society, and communities to strengthen local responses.
Practical implications: peacekeeping has to balance protection, neutrality, and advocacy, while ensuring victims’ safety and dignity.
Humanitarian Practice: Addressing GBV in Programs
GBV considerations across all humanitarian/development programs; assume GBV risks exist even if not reported.
Feedback and reporting mechanisms: hotlines, online reporting, in-person reporting at program sites, anonymous channels.
Program design considerations: ensure GBV risk is mitigated in all activities (e.g., shelter design, bathroom placement, lighting, and safe access for women and girls).
Partnerships for services: when organizations lack GBV expertise, they refer victims to specialized services (medical, psychosocial support) via local/international partners.
Risk reduction and root causes: identify vulnerabilities; address gender dynamics and rights through education, community awareness, and engaging men and boys in advocacy.
Real-world example: in Iraq, a program referred victims to specialized services rather than providing medical care directly.
Proactive vs reactive: always consider GBV prevention as part of program implementation, not just response to incidents.
Gender Analysis in Conflict and Peacebuilding
Conflict analysis can be conducted with a gender lens to understand how gender relations shape decision-making, power distribution, and participation.
Three approaches to gender analysis (as discussed in readings):
Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) approach: emphasizes equal participation of women in prevention, relief, recovery, and peacebuilding; questions include women’s leadership access and freedom of movement.
Peaceful Masculinities approach: reframes masculinities as socially constructed; questions whether notions of masculinity are tied to violence and how expectations for men shape conflict dynamics.
Intersecting Identities approach (Intersectionality): recognizes multiple, intersecting identities (race, class, ethnicity, sexuality, etc.) that affect individuals’ experiences of violence and participation; asks how family, community, and national structures reinforce or challenge norms.
For conflict analysis, these approaches help uncover root causes and inform mediation/negotiation strategies by broadening stakeholder perspectives.
Role of Gender in Peacebuilding: Evidence and Findings
Key finding from a UN study of 156 peace agreements: when women are included in peace processes, agreements are about 35% more likely to last at least 15 years.
Influence of women’s groups: strong influence by women’s groups almost always leads to agreements; moderate influence still yields high success rates; lack of involvement correlates with lower success.
No evidence of negative impact from women’s involvement in peace processes per the study.
Context-specific examples of women’s impact:
Burundi: including provisions on freedom of marriage and right to choose a partner.
Guatemala: collaboration with the women’s representative to include commitments on criminalizing sexual harassment and establishing an office for indigenous women’s rights.
UN 2015 evaluation paper on peace agreements (1990–2015):
Found increasing references to women over time, partly due to UNSCR 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security.
UNSCR 1325 acknowledged that civilians are increasingly targeted and women are disproportionately affected by violence, and it affirmed the need for women’s equal participation in peace processes.
Before the resolution: about 11% of peace agreements referenced women; after: about 27% referenced women; overall, only 18% of agreements referenced women.
Limitations: many references to women did not demonstrate robust gender perspectives in the text.
Recommendations from the paper:
Ensure consultation of women in peace negotiations, including the structure and modalities of negotiations.
Explicitly address women’s needs and rights in peace agreements and implementation.
Conduct consultative conflict assessments of the power dynamics at the heart of the conflict and its relationship with gender power relations.
Assess implications for both women and men of draft peace agreement provisions across all levels (policy, legislation, programs).
Security Council language should consider multiple pathways of peace to include perspectives beyond political and military elites; broaden civic input to address social needs.
Overall conclusion: active involvement of women in peace negotiations yields positive outcomes for peace sustainability and for addressing women’s needs; however, international practice has not consistently translated this into practice.
Implications, Ethics, and Practical Considerations
Ethical imperative to include women and address gender-specific needs in peace processes and post-conflict reconstruction.
Practical implication: ignoring gender perspectives undermines the legitimacy and effectiveness of peace agreements and humanitarian outcomes.
The persistence of impunity and slow judicial processes in cases like Bosnia demonstrates gaps between international recognition of CRSV as a serious crime and sustained survivor support and justice.
The linkage between CRSV and broader gender inequality suggests that only addressing violence itself without altering underlying gender norms is insufficient for durable peace.
The role of humanitarian actors highlights the need for integration of GBV risk assessments and survivor-centered services across all programs, not just those dedicated to GBV programming.
Discussion prompts
Why might the international community still fail to consistently include women in peace negotiations despite evidence of positive outcomes?
How can Security Council action be structured to better support inclusive peace processes without alienating other stakeholders?
In humanitarian programs, what are the most effective and scalable strategies to prevent GBV while maintaining programmatic goals? How can programs balance rapid response with long-term structural change?
Summary of Key Statistics and Cases (for quick reference)
CRSV scope: rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, forced abortion, forced sterilization, etc.
Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995):
~11,000 killed; at least 70% of victims Bosniaks.
Estimated 20,000–50,000 women raped; CRSV employed as part of ethnic cleansing.
Victims imprisoned in gyms, hotels, or camps; some subjected to rape with firearms or broken glass.
ICTY convictions established rape as torture and sexual enslavement as a crime against humanity.
UN CRSV framework emphasizes prevention, justice, protection, and survivor support; multi-level engagement.
Peace agreements and gender references:
156 peace agreements studied for WPS impact; ~35% higher likelihood of lasting 15 years when women are included.
Burundi: context-specific gender provisions (e.g., freedom of marriage/right to choose partner).
Guatemala: commitments to criminalize sexual harassment and establish indigenous women’s rights office.
UNSCR 1325 impact findings (1990–2015):
Proportion of agreements referencing women rose from ~11% (pre-1325) to ~27% (post-1325).
Overall references to women in peace agreements stood around 18% during the period studied.
Recommendations emphasize gender-inclusive negotiation structures, explicit gender provisions, and broader consultative processes for peace.
Quick recall formulas / numbers
CRSV examples: ext{rape},\, ext{sexual slavery},\, ext{forced prostitution},\, ext{forced pregnancy},\, ext{forced abortion},\, ext{forced sterilization}
Peace agreement longevity boost with women’s involvement: ext{Probability}( ext{lasting} \ge 15 ext{ years}) ext{ increases by } 35 ext{ percent}
Representation changes (UNSCR 1325 impact): pre-1325 references ~11\%, post-1325 references ~27\%, overall references ~18\%.
Bosnian casualties: 11{,}000 killed; ext{≈}70\% ext{ Bosniaks among the dead}.
Estimated CRSV victims in Bosnia: 20{,}000\sim50{,}000 women raped.
Connections to foundational principles
Builds on the concept that peace is not just the cessation of conflict but the establishment of just social orders that prevent recurrence (positive peace).
Reinforces the understanding that gender equality is a foundational element of sustainable security and development.
Links to prior discussions of structural violence, human security, and the role of international institutions (e.g., UN) in shaping norms and responses.