The Establishment of British Power and Resistance in Sri Lanka

Developments in Transport and Communication Infrastructure

• The development of a sophisticated transport system was necessitated by the requirement to transport estate products to trade centers and the harbour in Colombo, and to transport essential supplies back to the estates.
• Prior to these developments, transportation was primarily conducted using carts, which was considered inefficient.
• Road Construction:
  • The Colombo to Kandy road was constructed during the administration of Governor Edward Barns.
  • Subsequent roads were built connecting Kandy from Kurunegala and Dambulla.
  • A new construction methodology was introduced involving the use of stones and tar.
  • Wooden bridges over waterways were systematically replaced with iron bridges.
• Railway Development:
  • Railway construction was initiated by Governor Henry Ward.
  • Construction of the Kandy railway began in $1858$ and concluded in $1863$.
  • The inaugural train service from Colombo to Kandy commenced in August $1867$.
  • The rail line was extended from Peradeniya to Nawalapitiya in $1871$ and reached Bandarawela in $1899$.
• Urban Expansion: The growth of roads and transport facilitated the emergence of trade centers that evolved into cities. Significant populated cities during this era included Gampola, Badulla, Ratnapura, and Matale.
• Communication and Postal Services:
  • Messages were initially delivered via individual messengers.
  • An official postal system was established by $1815$ connecting the major cities of Colombo, Trincomalee, Galle, Kandy, and Jaffna.
  • This system utilized chariots for transit, marking the first time chariot-run postal services were utilized in Asia.
  • Sri Lanka's first postal stamp was issued in $1857$.
  • By $1903$, a total of $340$ post offices had been established across the country.
  • The telegram service was officially launched in $1858$.

The Arrival and Expansion of British Power in Asia

• Motivation: The English were driven to Asia by the significant profits observed from Portuguese and Dutch trade activities.
• East India Trade Company:
  • Established in December $1600$ via a royal warrant granted by Queen Elizabeth I.
  • The initial fleet of ships focused on the Sumatra islands for trade.
  • A subsequent fleet under William Hokins reached India to negotiate trade with the Mughal emperor, Jahangir.
• Conflict and Shifts in Focus:
  • The English initially focused on Southeast Asia, often assisting the Dutch against the Portuguese in the early $17^{th}$ century.
  • Tension arose as the Dutch sought to maintain a spice monopoly. In $1623$, the Dutch attacked an English fortress on the spice island of Ambon, killing several English personnel.
  • Lacking the military power for retaliation in that region, the English withdrew from Southeast Asia to focus entirely on India.
• Establishment in India:
  • It took the English over $10$ years (starting from $1607$) to stabilize trade relations.
  • By the late $17^{th}$ century, key trade centers were established in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.
  • Competition with France: From $1664$, the French established centers in Pondicherry, Karikal, and Chadranagar, leading to a political battle for Indian dominance in the $18^{th}$ century.

Factors for British Interest in Sri Lanka

• The English ignored Sri Lanka for nearly a century while establishing their Indian base, largely due to the strength of Dutch coastal fortifications.
• Shift in Attention: In the first half of the $18^{th}$ century, as the Mughal empire declined and the British began exercising political power in India, Sri Lanka became a strategic priority for two main reasons:
  • 1. Geographical Location: Close proximity to India and its status as a center for naval/trade administration in the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal.
  • 2. Valuable Spices: The country was famous for cinnamon, which offered high profits in European markets. Other goods included pepper, cardamom, cloves, pearls, gems, and ivory.
• The Trincomalee Harbour: This was of particular interest due to several factors:
  • It faced the Bay of Bengal and was essential for protecting naval power on India's eastern coast.
  • It served as a vital repair center for ships damaged in battles with the French.
  • It provided a safe haven for ships during the Northeastern monsoon winds.
  • The British feared that if Trincomalee fell to the French, it would jeopardize Indian security and Indian Ocean trade regulation.

British Diplomatic Missions and the Conquest of the Coastal Regions

• Diplomatic Missions to Kandy: Similar to their strategy with the Portuguese, Sri Lankan kings sought to use one European power to oust another. King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe sent messengers to the English in India.
  • 1. $1762$: John Pybus visited the hill country.
  • 2. $1782$: Hugh Boyd visited the hill country.
  • 3. $1795$: Robert Andrews visited the hill country.
• Outcome of Missions:
  • The first two missions (Pybus and Boyd) failed because the English and Dutch had a mutual understanding at the time and were not at war; the English were reluctant to help the king against the Dutch.
  • Robert Andrews met King Rajadhirajasinghe in $1795$ after the English captured Trincomalee. Though the king agreed to help, the English realized the battle against the Dutch was easier than anticipated and refused to share potential profits, leading to a breakdown in long-term relations.
• The Kew Letter and Conquest of $1796$:
  • After the French Revolution ($1789$) and the French invasion of Holland ($1794$), King William V (the Stadtholder) fled to Britain.
  • From Kew Palace, the Stadtholder issued the "Kew Letter," instructing Dutch governors to admit English troops to prevent French capture.
  • Governor Funn Englebeck was reluctant to comply. Consequently, the English attacked Trincomalee in $1795$. The Dutch surrendered Mullathivu, Batticaloa, Jaffna, Mannar, Colombo, and Galle.
  • A final treaty was signed on February $16$, $1796$, marking the transfer of all Dutch-held coastal areas to the English.

British Administration and Early Resistance

• Governance under the East India Trade Company ($1796$-$1798$):
  • The region was administered under the Madras government.
  • A "Resident" was appointed to rule coastal areas.
  • Collectors were appointed to oversee income; their centers were called "Kachcheri."
  • Assistant officers were titled "Avumildars."
  • Native officers like Mudliers were ignored, and Madras-born officers with no knowledge of local language or culture were hired, creating a distance between the government and the public.
• Economic Harassment and Taxes: The company prioritized recovering the costs of capturing the island and achieving fast profits.
  • New taxes were imposed, requiring payment in cash.
  • The "Tax on Coconut Trees": Owners of more than $10$ trees paid one silver panam ($6.00\,\text{cents}$) per tree, regardless of harvest quality.
• The Rebellion of $1797$: Repugnance toward the new taxes and the Madras administration led to a widespread insurgency in all coastal areas.
• Meuron Commission: Brigadier General De Meuron headed a commission to investigate the unrest. Key proposals included:
  • Replacing Madras officers with local officers.
  • Removing the coconut tree tax.
  • Separating judicial and income collection tasks.
  • Re-establishing the Dutch court system.
• Dual Administration ($1798$-$1802$): Governor Fredric North was appointed for politics/admin, while the Trade Company retained income collection. This system failed due to lack of cooperation from company officers. In $1802$, the coastal regions became a direct British Crown Colony.

The Conquest of the Hill Country

• Succession Crisis ($1798$): Following King Rajadhirajasinghe's death, Pilimathalawe (Maha Adikaram) facilitated the coronation of Kannasami as Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe, while the rival claimant, Muththusami, fled to the British.
• Governor North's Policy: North viewed the independent hill country as a threat to coastal security and land communication between Colombo and Trincomalee.
• Failed Mission of $1800$: Commander MacDowell led an envoy with $1164$ soldiers and $8$ cannons. The king refused entry to the massive force; the mission ended without a treaty.
• Invasion of $1803$: North sent troops from Trincomalee and Colombo in early $1803$. The British occupied Kandy on February $21$ but faced disastrous consequences:
  • The king and citizens evacuated to organize resistance.
  • Rainy seasons brought epidemics (disease) to the British troops.
  • Supply routes were blocked, leading to food shortages and communication failures.
  • The British-installed puppet, Prince Muttusami, was captured and the invasion resulted in a total British defeat.
• Strategy of John D'Oyly: Governor Thomas Maitland ($1805$) used John D'Oyly for intelligence. D'Oyly studied local customs and language under Rev. Korathota Dhammarama and Rev. Morathota Dhammakkandha to infiltrate high society. He used spies disguised as sellers and palm readers to map the kingdom's internal security.
• Downfall of King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe: The king's reign became unstable due to:
  • Conflicts with the Nayakkar relations and the execution of Pilimathalawwe.
  • Breakdown of relationships with monks after several were killed.
  • Distance from the public due to forced labor for projects like the Bogambara tank, the Paththirippu (octagon), and Kandy city renovations.
  • The brutal massacre of the wife and children of Ehalepola Adhikaram after his rebellion in Sabaragamuwa.
• The Capture ($1815$): Governor Robert Brownrigg invaded in January $1815$. The public did not protect the king. On February $18$, $1815$, the king was captured at Medamahanuwara and handed to the British.

The Upcountry Treaty of 1815

• Signed on March $2$, $1815$, at the Magul Maduwa (Royal Courts).
• Represented by Governor Brownrigg and the upcountry aristocrats.
• Key Clauses:
  • Statements $1$-$3$: Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe and his relatives were stripped of all rights to the throne.
  • Statement $4$: The kingdom was surrendered to the British, with a promise to protect the rights and privileges of traditional aristocrats.
  • Statement $5$: Promised the protection of Buddhism, Devagam, monks, temples, and devalas.
• Historical Incident: Rev. Wariyapola Sri Sumangala thero reportedly dragged down the English flag and hoisted the Sri Lankan flag before the treaty was finalized, as the British had attempted to raise their flag prematurely.
• Consequence: Sri Lanka lost the sovereignty it had maintained for over $2000$ years. John D'Oyly was appointed as the residential representative in Kandy.

The 1818 Struggle for Freedom

• Nature: Armed insurgencies against British rule from September $1817$ to October $1818$.
• Underlying Causes:
  • Loss of local sovereignty and the absence of a visible, resident king.
  • Cultural Poem of Distress:         "Oh! Dear ants / you have a king / what can we do / this is our destiny / when will we have a king / to celebrate with milk rice / respect with pageants / chant with 'sadu sadu'"
  • Religious Fears: Skepticism that non-Buddhist foreigners would truly protect Buddhism as promised.
  • Aristocratic Grievances: Loss of status and income (e.g., cancellation of "kadwath badda" tax). The appointment of a Muslim, Hajji Marikkar, as Madihe Mohandiram (transport head) traditionally reserved for Sinhalese officers.
• Key Events:
  • A claimant named Doresami emerged in Wellassa.
  • Agent Douglas Wilson was killed by rebels.
  • Keppetipola Disawe, sent to suppress the rebellion, joined the rebels and became their leader.
  • Rebels captured the Tooth Relic, seen as the symbol of kingship.
• British Suppression: Governor Brownrigg imposed martial law in February $1818$. Troops used a "land sweeping policy," burning villages and executing rebels. Leaders including Maththamagoda, Kobbekaduwa, Dambawinna Disawe, and Galagedara Mohottala were arrested.
• Final Outcome: Keppetipola and Madugalle were executed on November $26$, $1818$. The power of aristocrats was further curtailed by a special proclamation of $56$ statements on November $21$, $1818$.

The 1848 Struggle for Independence

• Context: A second armed battle arising $30$ years later, primarily due to the Colebrooke reforms ($1833$) and new tax policies.
• Causes of the 1848 Struggle:
  • 1. Land Policy: The Barron Land Act of $1840$ confiscated uncultivated lands (Chena lands) where ownership could not be proven for $30$ years. These were sold cheaply to foreigners for coffee cultivation.
  • 2. Discontinuation of Gam Sabha: The abolition of compulsory "duty labour" made it impossible for village councils to maintain lakes and canals. They also lost their judiciary power.
  • 3. New Judiciary System: Villagers faced expensive lawyers' charges and stamp fees in courts that functioned only in English.
  • 4. Distancing of Admin: Civil servants were reduced in number and allowed to engage in their own estate cultivation, leading to the neglect of public needs.
• The New Tax Policy of Governor Torrington ($1848$):
  • New taxes included stamps, carts, catamarans, shops, guns, body tax, and dogs.
  • Gun Tax: $2.5\,\text{shillings}$ annually. The fee often exceeded the gun's value.
  • Body Tax: Men had to work on roads for $6\,\text{days}$ or pay $3.00\,\text{shillings}$.
  • Statistics Survey: The "Blue Book" survey led people to fear even more taxes.
• The Battle:
  • Protests occurred in Colombo, Galle, Kandy, and Badulla ($4000$ people at Kandy Kachcheri).
  • Rebels in Dambulla coronated Gongalegoda Banda as king.
  • Leaders: Gongalegoda Banda, Puran Appu, Dingirala, and Diyes.
  • Matale was the struggle's center.
• Failure and Suppression: The Battle failed due to its disorganized nature and the use of untrained volunteers against a professional British army. Puran Appu was executed; Gongalegoda Banda was whipped and exiled. The shooting of Rev. Kadahapola Thero after a summary trial caused significant public outrage.