Comprehensive Notes: Nationalism in India (1920s–1930s)
The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation
The post-1919 context: the war created a new economic and political situation in India, fueling anti-colonial mobilization.
War expenditure increased dramatically; financed by war loans and rising taxes.
Customs duties were raised; income tax introduced.
Prices doubled between 1913 and 1918, creating extreme hardship for common people.
Rural distress: villages were required to supply soldiers; forced recruitment in rural areas led to anger.
After the war, crops failed in many parts of India (1918–1921) causing acute food shortages and an influenza epidemic; census of 1921 recorded about deaths due to famine and epidemic.
The new mode of struggle: Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 from South Africa, where he led satyagraha against racist laws.
The satyagraha method emphasized truth and non-violence as a means to oppose injustice.
A satyagrahi seeks to win through appealing to the conscience of the oppressor, without inflicting harm or seeking revenge.
Gandhi believed this dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians across differences.
Early satyagraha campaigns in India included:
Champaran (Bihar, 1917) to help peasants resisting oppressive plantation systems.
Kheda (Gujarat, 1917) to demand revenue relaxation due to crop failure.
Ahmedabad (cotton mill workers, 1918).
1.2 The Rowlatt Act (1919)
The Act extended wartime repression powers, allowing detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
Gandhi called for a nationwide satyagraha against the Act, starting with a hartal on 6 April.
Campaign actions: rallies, railway workshops strikes, shop closures.
British response: tightened repression; Amritsar saw mass arrests, and martial law was imposed.
13 April: Jallianwalla Bagh massacre led by General Dyer; hundreds killed in Amritsar when exits were blocked and fire opened on peaceful protesters.
The violence sparked widespread unrest: attacks on banks, post offices, and railway stations; brutal repression followed, including humiliations such as rubbing noses on the ground and forced salutes to the British.
Gandhi used the incident to reflect on the need for broader mobilization and non-violent mass action; he eventually called off the movement after violence spread.
1.3 Why Non-cooperation?
Gandhi argued in Hind Swaraj (1909) that British rule rested on Indian cooperation; without cooperation, British rule could collapse and swaraj could come.
Gandhi proposed a staged plan: surrender of titles; boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods; and, if repression intensified, a full civil disobedience campaign.
1920–1921: Gandhi and Shaukat Ali toured to mobilise popular support for non-cooperation.
Within Congress, debate existed over boycotting council elections; a compromise was reached at Nagpur in December 1920, adopting the Non-Cooperation programme.
Differing Strands within the Movement
2.1 The Movement in the Towns
Urban middle-class participation surged: thousands of students left government schools/colleges; headmasters/teachers resigned; lawyers gave up practice.
Council elections were boycotted in most provinces; in Madras, the Justice Party entered the council as a power move (non-Brahman leadership).
Economic effects: foreign goods boycotted; liquor shops picketed; foreign cloth burned in bonfires.
Import of foreign cloth halved (1921–1922): from to . Merchants refrained from foreign trade; Indian textile mills and handlooms gained.
Challenges: Khadi cloth was often more expensive; many could not sustain boycott long-term; Indian institutions to replace British ones were slow to develop, causing a gradual return to government schools and courts.
2.2 Rebellion in the Countryside
The movement spread to peasants and tribal regions with varied aspirations.
Awadh: Baba Ramchandra led peasants against talukdars and landlords who imposed high rents and cesses; begar (unpaid labour) was common.
Demands included revenue reduction, abolition of begar, and social boycotts of oppressive landlords.
Nehru’s village campaigns (October 1920 onward) culminated in the Awadh Kisan Sabha; by October, 300+ branches were formed.
Peasant actions included attacks on landlords’ houses, looting, grain hoards, and village boycotts; at times Gandhiji’s call for swaraj was invoked to justify action.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928, Bardoli taluka, Gujarat) led by Vallabhbhai Patel achieved success and generated sympathy nationwide.
In Awadh, the movement intersected with peasant struggles but sometimes clashed with Congress strategy.
2.3 Swaraj in the Plantations
Plantation workers (Assam) sought freedom of movement and a link back to their villages.
Inland Emigration Act (1859) restricted movement; many workers left the tea gardens, were intercepted by strikes, and were beaten by police.
These workers envisioned Gandhi Raj and hoped for land in their home villages, but many could not reach destinations due to transport strikes.
Other participants and responses included various acts of resistance and arrests during the movement.
Towards Civil Disobedience
3.1 The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1931)
In response to global and local political pressures, Gandhi sought to connect the struggle with everyday life.
Gandhi issued eleven demands in a letter to Viceroy Irwin on 31 January 1930, with the most notable demand being the abolition of the salt tax and the monopoly on salt production.
Gandhi set a deadline of 11 March; if demands were not met, a civil disobedience campaign would begin.
Salt March: from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (≈ ) over 24 days; Gandhi led 78 volunteers; thousands joined along the way; marching day average ~ .
On 6 April, Gandhi publicly violated the salt law by boiling sea water and producing salt, signaling the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The movement broadened to boycotting foreign cloth and liquor shops; peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes; forest dwellers violated forest laws by entering Reserved Forests.
The government arrested Gandhi and many leaders; there were violent clashes and mass protests; Abdul Ghaffar Khan was arrested in Peshawar; widespread repression followed; about people were arrested.
Gandhi signed the Gandhi–Irwin Pact (5 March 1931), agreeing to participate in the Second Round Table Conference, while the government agreed to release prisoners.
The Round Table Conference (London) began in 1931 and ended without a lasting settlement; upon return, Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The movement continued for over a year but gained momentum only around 1930–1931 and waned by 1934.
3.2 How Participants Saw the Movement
Rural rich peasants (e.g., Patidars of Gujarat, Jats of Uttar Pradesh) actively participated; driven by revenue reductions and the depressed economy.
Poor peasants and small tenants joined various radical movements, often led by socialists/communists; the Congress remained cautious about “no rent” campaigns to avoid antagonizing landlords.
Some urban radicals formed groups like the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) in 1928; leaders included Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das, and Ajoy Ghosh; committed to revolutionary violence at times (e.g., 1929 bombings in the Legislative Assembly) but framed revolution as a broader social transformation rather than cults of violence alone.
3.3 The Limits of Civil Disobedience
Dalit communities began to demand political rights and representation; Ambedkar organized the Depressed Classes Association (1930) and clashed with Gandhi over separate electorates.
Gandhi linked swaraj to the elimination of untouchability and supported Harijan upliftment, but some Dalit leaders sought reserved seats or separate electorates.
Unresolved communal tensions: Muslim concerns grew about minority status; many Muslims felt alienated from the Congress by the mid- to late-1920s; negotiations around representation failed, contributing to tensions that would culminate in later demands for Pakistan.
Iqbal’s View on Communalism: the need for accommodation of communal identities was debated; Iqbal argued that communal groups had a legitimate role, but many nationalists debated the compatibility of separate electorates with a unified nation.
The Sense of Collective Belonging
Nationalism spread when people felt part of a larger whole; unity emerged through shared struggles and cultural processes.
Symbols and images helped forge a common identity:
Bharat Mata: the mother-country figure, promoted by nationalist artists and writers; originated with Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Vande Mataram, 1870s) and was popularized by Abanindranath Tagore in the Swadeshi moment.
Visual symbolism and popular prints: Bharat Mata appeared in multiple versions, emphasizing divine, ascetic, and sacrificial qualities.
National flags and symbols: Swadeshi-era tricolor in Bengal with lotus symbols; Gandhiji designed the Swaraj flag (tricolor with a spinning wheel at the center).
Folklore revival: nationalist leaders collected folk tales and songs to celebrate traditional culture and pride in India’s past.
Visual art and interpretations: Tagore’s Bharat Mata and other renditions reflected debates about inclusivity and representation across communities.
Tensions and inclusivity: earlier nationalist imagery risked favoring Hindu iconography and excluding other faiths; organizers debated how to appeal to all communities.
History reinterpretation: nationalist histories emphasized India’s achievements in ancient times to counter colonial depictions of backwardness; the portrayal of a glorious past was used to motivate present-day struggle, though it risked sidelining minority narratives.
Activity prompts and visual analysis: students were invited to compare Bharat Mata images with other portrayals (e.g., Germania) to understand how nationalist imagery framed belonging.
The Quit India Movement (1942) and Final Phases
The Cripps Mission and WWII created widespread discontent; Gandhi launched Quit India in July 1942.
Wardha Conference (14 July 1942) passed the Quit India resolution calling for immediate British withdrawal and mass non-violent struggle.
AICC endorsed the resolution on 8 August 1942; Gandhi delivered the Do or Die speech.
The movement sought to mobilize ordinary people, including students, workers, and peasants; women played notable roles in Bengal, Assam, and Odisha.
The British responded with force; the movement persisted for over a year before being suppressed.
Conclusion: Unity and Disunity in the National Movement
The Congress under Gandhi aimed to channel diverse grievances into a national movement, yet differences among social classes, religions, and regions persisted.
The national movement featured periods of unity followed by internal conflicts and fragmentation; a nation with multiple voices emerged within the freedom struggle.
The Quit India Movement (1942) demonstrated mass participation and the willingness of ordinary people to risk everything for independence.
Key Dates and Events (Selected)
1919–1920: Rowlatt Act passed; Jallianwalla Bagh massacre; Gandhian satyagraha becomes a nationwide movement.
1920: Nagpur Resolution; Non-Cooperation Movement adopted.
1921: Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement expands to new areas.
1922: Chauri Chaura incident; Gandhi withdraws the Non-Cooperation Movement.
1928: Bardoli Satyagraha led by Vallabhbhai Patel; HSRA founded (Bhagat Singh, etc.).
1930: Salt March (Dandi March); start of the Civil Disobedience Movement; Gandhi-Irwin Pact negotiations begin.
1931: Gandhi–Irwin Pact signed; Round Table Conference in London.
1932: Civil Disobedience re-launched after the dissolution of the pact; continues with diminished momentum.
1942: Quit India Movement launched (Wardha, 14 July 1942; Do or Die speech; August 8 AICC endorsement).
Discussion and Study Prompts
Project prompts:
List all the social groups that joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921 and describe their hopes and struggles.
Explain why the Salt March was an effective symbol of resistance.
Reflect on what it meant to be a woman participant in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Comparative questions:
Why did political leaders differ on separate electorates? Compare India’s movement with anti-colonial struggles in Indo-China.
Conceptual questions:
Explain the idea of satyagraha and why Gandhi framed it as an active form of resistance rather than passive.
Historical events to report on:
Jallianwala Bagh massacre; Simon Commission; and the Lahore Resolution (1929) declaring Purna Swaraj.
Supplementary Images and Symbols (Referencing Figures in the Text)
Bharat Mata imagery and its evolution (Fig. 12, Fig. 14a): representations of India’s motherland as a unifying symbol; debates over inclusive iconography.
The Swaraj flag and tricolor designs (Swadeshi era): different versions and their symbolism (lotus, crescent, spinning wheel).
Bal Gangadhar Tilak imagery and other symbols (Fig. 11): unity across religious symbols and national belonging.
Key Personages and Groups Mentioned
Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi): central figure in Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience; advocate of non-violence and mass mobilization.
Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali (Khilafat leaders): collaborated with Gandhi to unify Hindu and Muslim participation.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Vallabhbhai Patel: later constitutional and militant voices shaping independence movement.
B. R. Ambedkar: Dalit leader who advocated for separate electorates and later supported the Poona Pact; engaged in debates over Dalit rights and representation.
Alluri Sitarama Raju: tribal guerrilla leader in the Gudem Hills who supported Gandhi’s movement but insisted on forceful resistance.
The HSRA (Hindustan Socialist Republican Army): Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das, Ajoy Ghosh; engaged in revolutionary acts against British rule.
Formulas and Numerical References (LaTeX)
Price rise during WWI:
Salt March distance:
Salt March duration:
Participants in Salt March: volunteers at the outset
Arrests during Civil Disobedience:
Famine/epidemic deaths:
Import decline in foreign cloth (1921–1922): from to
Dates of major milestones:
Rowlatt Act passed:
Jallianwalla Bagh massacre:
Bardoli Satyagraha:
Lahore Resolution declaring Purna Swaraj:
Salt March: start date ; Dandi march end:
Gandhi–Irwin Pact:
Quit India Resolution: ; Do or Die speech:
Connections to Earlier Concepts
Nationalism in Europe and the idea of nation-states provided a framework for understanding how identity and belonging can be redefined; in India, anti-colonial struggle became a core mechanism for forging a national consciousness across diverse groups.
The Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience movements illustrate how mass movements can mobilize varied social segments (urban middle class, peasants, workers, women, tribal communities) around a shared goal while accommodating divergent aspirations.
The role of symbols (Bharat Mata, tricolor flags, the Swaraj flag) and the reinterpretation of history were crucial in creating a common imaginative space for Indians.
Ethical and Practical Implications
Non-violence as a strategic ethical stance: Gandhi’s emphasis on truth, non-violence, and civil disobedience rests on appealing to the conscience of both the oppressor and the community; this raises questions about effectiveness, limits, and the potential for violence to emerge as a reaction to repression (as seen in Chauri Chaura and subsequent shifts).
Tensions between unity and plurality: while the movement aimed to unite diverse groups, it often exposed fault lines—economic classes, caste groups, and religious communities—requiring ongoing negotiation and compromise within the Congress.
Dalit rights and representation: Ambedkar’s demand for separate electorates highlighted the need to address social inequalities within the nationalist project; the Poona Pact represented a negotiated compromise, yet it also underscored the limits of integration within a single national framework.
Gender roles and women’s participation: women’s involvement during the Civil Disobedience Movement broadened public engagement, but Gandhi’s vision of women’s roles often emphasized social service over political leadership, reflecting ongoing debates about gender and political agency.
Comparative perspectives: the chapter invites comparing India’s movement with anti-colonial struggles in Indo-China, underscoring diverse routes to independence and the role of local context and leadership in shaping outcomes.
Brief Timeline (Condensed)
1919: Rowlatt Act; Jallianwalla Bagh massacre; Gandhi’s call for non-cooperation begins; Amritsar repression.
1920: Khilafat joins with Non-Cooperation; Nagpur Congress adopts the program.
1921–22: Movement expands to towns and countryside; economic boycott grows; Bardoli emerges as a key rural success.
1928–29: Growth of revolutionary groups (HSRA); Savarkar’s ideas and communal tensions begin intensifying.
1930: Salt March; Civil Disobedience Movement escalates; Gandhi–Irwin Pact signed in 1931.
1932–34: Civil Disobedience loses momentum; movement re-launched later yet with diminished force; debates about constitutional means vs mass action continue.
1942: Quit India Movement launches a new wave of mass resistance; substantial participation across classes; ultimately quelled by the British.
Final Note
The nationalist project in this period was a balancing act: forging unity across diverse aspirations while navigating internal disagreements and external pressures. The movement’s legacy lies in both its successes (mobilization, symbolic symbolism, plus temporary but meaningful reforms) and its unresolved tensions (representation, communal politics, and the path to complete independence).
The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation
The post-1919 context: The First World War profoundly transformed India's economic and political landscape, generating widespread discontent that significantly fueled anti-colonial mobilization.
Economic Impact: War expenditure increased dramatically, financed primarily through massive war loans from India and escalating taxes. Customs duties were raised significantly, and a new income tax was introduced, directly burdening the populace. Prices of essential goods doubled between 1913 and 1918 (a 100 ext{%} increase), creating extreme economic hardship, especially for common people and the poor.
Social and Political Impact: Rural areas faced acute distress as villages were coerced to supply soldiers, with aggressive forced recruitment policies leading to widespread anger and resentment. After the war, successive crop failures in many parts of India (particularly in 1918–19 and 1920–21) resulted in severe food shortages and an influenza epidemic. The census of 1921 tragically recorded approximately deaths due to famine and epidemic, highlighting the devastating human cost.
The new mode of struggle: Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 from South Africa, where he had successfully pioneered the method of 'satyagraha' against racist laws and discriminatory practices.
Satyagraha Philosophy: The satyagraha method, meaning 'truth-force', emphasized the power of truth and the necessity of non-violence (ahimsa) as the ultimate means to oppose injustice and oppressive systems. A true satyagrahi seeks to win over the oppressor through appealing to their conscience and moral reasoning, without causing physical harm or seeking revenge. Gandhi firmly believed that this 'dharma' of non-violence had the potential to unite all Indians, transcending existing differences of caste, religion, and region.
Early Satyagraha Campaigns in India: Upon his return, Gandhi organized several localized satyagraha movements to test and popularize his methods:
Champaran (Bihar, 1917): He intervened to support peasants who were resisting the oppressive indigo plantation system (Tinkathia system, where peasants were forced to cultivate indigo on of their land) and demanding fair compensation.
Kheda (Gujarat, 1917): Gandhi led peasants in a 'no-revenue' campaign, demanding relaxation of revenue collection due to crop failure caused by plague and famine.
Ahmedabad (Cotton Mill Workers, 1918): He supported cotton mill workers who were demanding better wages and a bonus due to the plague epidemic and wartime inflation, employing a hunger strike as a key tactic.
1.2 The Rowlatt Act (1919)- The British government enacted the Rowlatt Act in March 1919, officially the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, in response to growing nationalist unrest. This draconian act extended the wartime repression powers, authorizing the government to imprison political prisoners without trial for up to two years, thereby suspending the right of habeas corpus. It also allowed trials in camera (secretly) and without jury.
Nationwide Satyagraha: Gandhi, deeply troubled by this infringement on civil liberties, called for a nationwide satyagraha against the Act, initiating a 'hartal' (strike-cum-protest) on 6 April 1919.
Campaign Actions: The movement saw widespread rallies, organized strikes in railway workshops across major cities, and the closure of shops. British administration, particularly in Punjab, faced significant disruption.
British Response: The British swiftly responded with intensified repression. In Amritsar, a city with strong nationalist sentiments, martial law was imposed, effectively handing control to the military, and several local leaders were arrested.
Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919): On the day of Baisakhi, a large, peaceful crowd had gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh in Amritsar, some to protest British policies and others to celebrate the festival. General Reginald Dyer, with his troops, blocked the single narrow exit gate and ordered his soldiers to open fire on the unarmed civilians. Hundreds were killed and thousands wounded, an act Dyer later stated was intended "to produce a moral effect" and "create a feeling of terror and awe." The barbarity of the massacre profoundly shocked the nation.
Aftermath and Repression: The violence sparked widespread unrest across North India, with attacks on government symbols like banks, post offices, and railway stations. The British retaliated with brutal repression, including public floggings, forcing 'satyagrahis' to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on their stomachs (e.g., in Gujranwala), and salute all sahibs. Gandhi, recognizing the spread of violence and fearing it would undermine the non-violent principles of satyagraha, eventually called off the movement, reflecting on the need for broader, disciplined, and genuinely non-violent mass action.
1.3 Why Non-cooperation?
Gandhi's Thesis: In his seminal work Hind Swaraj (1909), Mahatma Gandhi argued that British rule in India was established and sustained only because of the cooperation of Indians. He posited that if Indians refused to cooperate, British rule would inevitably collapse within a year, and swaraj (self-rule) could be achieved.
The Khilafat Issue: Following the defeat of Ottoman Turkey in World War I, rumors spread that a harsh peace treaty would be imposed on the Ottoman Emperor, who was the Caliph (Khalifa), the spiritual head of the Islamic world. A Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919 by Muslim leaders like Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali to defend the Caliph's temporal powers. Gandhi saw this as a golden opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims in a combined national movement.
Proposed Plan: At the Calcutta Session of the Congress in September 1920, Gandhi convinced other leaders of the need for a Non-Cooperation Movement in support of Khilafat and swaraj. He proposed a staged plan for non-cooperation:
Surrender of British titles and honorary offices bestowed by the colonial administration.
Boycott of civil services, the army, police, courts, legislative councils (though some Congress leaders initially opposed this), government schools, and foreign goods.
If government repression intensified, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.
Mobilization and Adoption: Gandhi and the Ali brothers extensively toured India in 1920–1921, effectively mobilizing popular support for the joint Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movements. While initial debates existed within Congress over boycotting council elections (e.g., C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru preferred to participate), a crucial compromise was reached at the Nagpur Session in December 1920, where the Non-Cooperation programme was formally adopted as the strategy for the nationalist movement.
Differing Strands within the Movement
2.1 The Movement in the Towns
Urban Middle-Class Participation: The Non-Cooperation Movement witnessed an enthusiastic surge of participation from the urban middle-class. Thousands of students abandoned government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned their positions, and lawyers, notably Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das, gave up their legal practices.
Council Boycott: Council elections were largely boycotted in most provinces. However, in Madras, the Justice Party, a non-Brahman organization, chose to enter the council, viewing it as a strategic opportunity to gain power and influence, thus demonstrating a differing aspiration within the broader movement.
Economic Effects: The economic impact of the movement in towns was significant. Foreign goods, especially cloth, were vigorously boycotted, liquor shops were picketed, and imported cloth was dramatically burned in public bonfires. The import of foreign cloth effectively halved between 1921 and 1922, plummeting from to . Many merchants and traders refrained from foreign trade or financing, leading to a strong impetus for Indian textile mills and handlooms, which saw substantial gains in production and sales.
Challenges and Limitations: Despite initial enthusiasm, the movement in towns faced practical challenges. Khadi cloth, hand-spun and hand-woven, was often considerably more expensive than mill-produced foreign cloth, making it difficult for many poorer people to sustain the boycott long-term. Furthermore, the slow development of alternative Indian educational institutions, courts, and administrative bodies to replace British ones meant that students, teachers, and lawyers gradually began returning to government schools, colleges, and courts, leading to a waning of urban participation by the mid-1920s.
2.2 Rebellion in the Countryside
The Non-Cooperation movement spread to various peasant and tribal regions, inspiring diverse aspirations and forms of resistance.
Awadh Peasants: In Awadh (present-day Uttar Pradesh), the peasant movement was led by Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi who had previously worked in Fiji as an indentured laborer. Here, peasants agitated against the oppressive talukdars (landlords) and big landlords who demanded exorbitantly high rents, a variety of cesses (taxes), and forced 'begar' (unpaid labor). Peasants were often evicted from their land, preventing them from acquiring any right over the leased land.
Demands and Tactics: The primary demands included a reduction of revenue, the complete abolition of begar, and the social boycott (naibarbandi) of oppressive landlords by washermen, barbers, and others who refused to serve them. Jawaharlal Nehru's village campaigns in Awadh (from October 1920) led to the formation of the Awadh Kisan Sabha, which quickly established over 300 branches by October 1920.
Peasant Actions: As the movement gathered momentum, peasant actions escalated to include attacks on landlords’ houses, looting of bazaars, seizure of grain hoards, and village boycotts. At times, the name of Mahatma Gandhi and his call for 'swaraj' were invoked by peasants to justify their sometimes violent or radical actions, often misinterpreting his ideal of non-violence specific to their local grievances.
Tribal Movements (Andhra Pradesh): In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement emerged in the early 1920s, led by Alluri Sitarama Raju. Raju was inspired by Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement, advocating temperance and clean living, and even persuaded villagers to wear khadi. However, he believed that India could only be liberated through the use of force, not non-violence. The colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing tribal people from grazing their cattle, collecting firewood, and gathering minor forest produce, thereby disrupting their traditional livelihoods. This forced them to do begar for road construction. Raju's rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials, and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928): In the Bardoli taluka of Gujarat, Vallabhbhai Patel successfully led a 'no-revenue' satyagraha. This movement, initiated against an arbitrary increase in land revenue, garnered nationwide sympathy and ultimately achieved its objectives, solidifying Patel's stature as a national leader.
2.3 Swaraj in the Plantations
Conditions of Plantation Workers: For plantation workers in Assam, the call for 'swaraj' held a different meaning. Their primary aspiration was the freedom of movement and the ability to return to their native villages. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were severely restricted; they were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without special permission, which was rarely granted.
Interpretation of Gandhi Raj: When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement and the promise of 'Gandhi Raj', thousands of workers defiantly left the tea gardens, believing that they would soon be granted land in their home villages. However, their journey was often brutal. They were intercepted by colonial police and officials, many were severely beaten, and due to widespread transport strikes, they were unable to reach their intended destinations, leaving them stranded.
Other participants and responses included various acts of resistance and arrests during the movement across different regions, reflecting the localized understanding and diverse interpretations of 'swaraj'.
Towards Civil Disobedience
3.1 The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1931)
Context and Demands: By the late 1920s, India faced a severe economic depression, and the highly unpopular all-British Simon Commission (1928) had further inflamed nationalist sentiments. The Lahore Congress Session of December 1929, under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency, had passed the resolution for Purna Swaraj (complete independence). In response to these growing pressures, Mahatma Gandhi sought to launch a new round of struggle, strategically linking it to an everyday grievance. In a letter to Viceroy Irwin on 31 January 1930, Gandhi issued eleven specific demands, covering diverse issues from land revenue reduction to military spending cuts and protection for Indian industries. The most resonant demand, however, was the abolition of the salt tax and the government's monopoly on salt production, as salt was a basic necessity for all, rich and poor alike.
The Salt March (Dandi March): Gandhi gave the British government an ultimatum, setting a deadline of 11 March 1930 for his demands to be met, warning that a civil disobedience campaign would commence if they were ignored. When no concession was made, Gandhi launched the iconic Salt March. Beginning from his Sabarmati Ashram, he embarked on a march of approximately to the coastal town of Dandi, accompanied by 78 trusted volunteers. The journey spanned 24 days, with the group covering about . Thousands joined the march along the way, converting it into a powerful symbol of nationalist sentiment.
Start of Civil Disobedience: On 6 April 1930, Gandhi reached Dandi and publicly violated the salt law by collecting natural salt left by the sea and boiling seawater to produce salt. This simple act signaled the official start of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Broadening of the Movement: The movement rapidly broadened beyond salt. People across the country began manufacturing salt themselves and picketing government salt factories. In many areas, women extensively participated in boycotting foreign cloth and liquor shops. Peasants refused to pay revenue and the unpopular 'chaukidari' taxes (village watchman taxes). In forest areas, tribal communities violated restrictive forest laws by entering Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze cattle, directly challenging colonial authority.
Government Repression: The government responded with increasing brutality. Prominent Congress leaders, including Gandhi, were arrested. Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Gandhi known as the "Frontier Gandhi," was arrested in Peshawar in April 1930, leading to massive demonstrations in the city where many were killed. Widespread repression followed, with about people arrested throughout the movement.
Gandhi–Irwin Pact and Round Table Conference: Facing intense violence, Gandhi once again decided to call off the movement. He signed the Gandhi–Irwin Pact on 5 March 1931, agreeing to participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London. In return, the government agreed to release all political prisoners. The Round Table Conference, however, began in September 1931 and ended without a lasting settlement, as the British refused to concede to the nationalist demands for complete independence. Upon his return to India, Gandhi was disillusioned and relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Movement's Decline: The renewed movement continued for over a year but gradually lost its momentum. It gained significant popular support only around 1930–1931 and waned by 1934, as political dynamics and colonial repression took their toll.
3.2 How Participants Saw the Movement
Rural Rich Peasants: Communities of rich peasants, such as the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh, were enthusiastic participants in the Civil Disobedience Movement. They were deeply affected by the economic depression and the falling prices of their cash crops, and their main demand was the reduction of government revenue. For them, the struggle for swaraj was a fight against high revenues. They actively organized their communities and often refused to pay revenue, but their sustained support diminished when the movement was suspended in 1931 without the revenue demands being revised.
Poor Peasants: The poor peasantry and small tenants often joined more radical, socialist- and communist-led movements. Their concerns were distinct: they struggled to pay their rents and sought the abolition of unpaid rent to landlords. The Congress, however, remained cautious about supporting "no rent" campaigns, fearing that such radical demands would alienate landlords and rich peasants, who were significant benefactors and organizational pillars for the movement.
Business Classes: Indian merchants and industrialists became powerful supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. They had accumulated huge profits during World War I but now faced restrictions on imports and unfair competition from foreign goods. To organize their business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927. Prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla actively supported the movement, viewing swaraj as a period when colonial restrictions on business would end and trade and industry would flourish without constraints. However, their enthusiasm waned after the failure of the Round Table Conference, and they grew wary of militant activities.
Industrial Workers: Industrial workers, except in নাগપુર (Nagpur), did not participate in large numbers. However, some workers selectively adopted Gandhian ideas, such as boycotting foreign goods. Railway workers and dockworkers staged strikes in 1930, and tin-mine workers in Chotanagpur also protested, wearing Gandhi caps and participating in rallies. However, the Congress leadership was hesitant to involve industrial workers in a large-scale political movement, as it feared alienating industrialists and disrupting public order.
Women Participants: A significant feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was the large-scale participation of women, especially from high-caste families in urban areas and rich peasant households in rural areas. They marched in protest, manufactured salt, picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops, and even went to jail. For many, participation was seen as a sacred duty to the nation. Gandhi often envisioned women's participation in traditional roles, such as symbolic protest and social upliftment, rather than in overtly political or leadership positions.
Urban Radicals and Revolutionaries: Some urban radicals, disillusioned with the pace of non-violent movements, formed groups like the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) in 1928, with leaders including Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das, and Ajoy Ghosh. They advocated for revolutionary violence, viewing it as a legitimate means to overthrow British rule. Their notable actions included the bombing of the Legislative Assembly in 1929 and the assassination of a British police officer. However, they framed their vision of revolution as a broader social transformation, aiming for a society free from exploitation, rather than merely engaging in cults of violence.
3.3 The Limits of Civil Disobedience
Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of swaraj. For many, freedom meant addressing their immediate social and economic grievances.
Dalit Communities (Depressed Classes): For long, the 'untouchables' or Dalits, as Gandhi called them 'Harijans' (children of God), had been marginalized. Many Dalit leaders began to demand political rights and representation, viewing their liberation as separate from the general nationalist struggle. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar organized the Depressed Classes Association in 1930 and clashed sharply with Mahatma Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference over the demand for separate electorates for Dalits, arguing this was essential for their political empowerment. Gandhi believed separate electorates would permanently compartmentalize society and slow down their integration, and he began a fast unto death in opposition. The issue was finally resolved with the Poona Pact of September 1932, which granted reserved seats for Dalits in provincial and central legislative councils, to be voted on by the general electorate, rather than separate electorates. Gandhi also linked swaraj to the elimination of untouchability and initiated campaigns for Harijan upliftment, cleaning toilets and encouraging upper castes to change their hearts. However, many Dalit leaders continued to seek more direct political means for their advancement.
Muslim Concerns and Communal Tensions: Many Muslim political organizations and communities felt increasingly alienated from the Congress by the mid- to late-1920s. Following the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, communal clashes between Hindus and Muslims intensified. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a prominent leader of the Muslim League, was willing to negotiate a united front with the Congress on the condition that Muslims be guaranteed reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in Muslim-majority provinces proportional to their population. However, at the All Parties Conference in 1928, where the Nehru Report on a future constitution was being debated, negotiations over representation failed, primarily because of a strong Hindu Mahasabha opposition to any concessions to Muslims. These unresolved communal tensions and failures of negotiation contributed significantly to the growing distrust and eventual demands for Pakistan. Poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal (1930) argued for the need for accommodation of communal identities, suggesting that communal groups had a legitimate role in the body politic, but many nationalists debated the compatibility of separate electorates with a unified nation.
The Sense of Collective Belonging
Nationalism spread when people felt part of a larger whole; unity emerged through shared struggles and cultural processes.
Symbols and images helped forge a common identity:
Bharat Mata: the mother-country figure, promoted by nationalist artists and writers; originated with Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Vande Mataram, 1870s) and was popularized by Abanindranath Tagore in the Swadeshi movement.
Visual symbolism and popular prints: Bharat Mata appeared in multiple versions, emphasizing divine, ascetic, and sacrificial qualities.
National flags and symbols: Swadeshi-era tricolor in Bengal with eight lotus symbols (representing eight provinces of British India) and a crescent moon (representing Hindus and Muslims); Gandhiji designed the Swaraj flag in 1921 (a tricolor with a spinning wheel at the center, symbolizing self-help and Swadeshi).
Folklore revival: nationalist leaders collected folk tales and songs to celebrate traditional culture and pride in India’s past, aiming to discover a national identity that had been distorted by colonial rule. Rabindranath Tagore, for instance, collected ballads and nursery rhymes, and Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India.
Visual art and interpretations: Tagore’s Bharat Mata and other renditions reflected debates about inclusivity and representation across communities, sometimes making it difficult for non-Hindu communities to relate to the imagery.
Tensions and inclusivity: earlier nationalist imagery risked favoring Hindu iconography and excluding other faiths; organizers debated how to appeal to all communities.
History reinterpretation: nationalist histories emphasized India’s achievements in ancient times to counter colonial depictions of backwardness; the portrayal of a glorious past was used to motivate present-day struggle, though it risked sidelining minority narratives.
Activity prompts and visual analysis: students were invited to compare Bharat Mata images with other portrayals (e.g., Germania) to understand how nationalist imagery framed belonging.
The Quit India Movement (1942) and Final Phases
The Cripps Mission (March 1942), which offered dominion status but not full independence, and the escalating difficulties of World War II (including the threat of Japanese invasion) created widespread discontent and a sense of urgency. Mahatma Gandhi, realizing that merely waiting for British withdrawal was not enough, launched the Quit India Movement in July 1942.
Wardha Resolution: The Congress Working Committee, meeting at Wardha on 14 July 1942, passed the Quit India resolution, calling for immediate British withdrawal from India and advocating for a mass non-violent struggle if the demand was not met.
AICC Endorsement and "Do or Die" Call: The All India Congress Committee (AICC) endorsed this resolution on 8 August 1942 in Bombay. On this occasion, Gandhi delivered his famous "Do or Die" speech, urging Indians to act as an independent nation and either achieve complete independence or die in the attempt.
Spread and Participation: The movement quickly spread, mobilizing ordinary people across various sectors, including students, workers, and peasants. It saw widespread, though often spontaneous, acts of sabotage against government infrastructure like railway lines, police stations, and post offices. Women played notable and courageous roles in various regions, such as Bengal, Assam, and Odisha, often leading processions and organizing resistance.
British Suppression and Persistence: The British government responded with extreme force, arresting Gandhi and other prominent Congress leaders almost immediately. Despite brutal suppression, including widespread arrests, firing on peaceful demonstrators, and the imposition of martial law in many areas, the movement persisted for over a year before it was eventually suppressed, demonstrating the immense resolve of the Indian people for independence.
Conclusion: Unity and Disunity in the National Movement
The Congress under Gandhi, despite its efforts, faced the continuous challenge of channeling diverse grievances into a cohesive national movement. Differences among social classes, religious communities, and regional aspirations persisted, often testing the unity of the freedom struggle.
The national movement featured distinct periods of unity and intense mass participation, often followed by internal conflicts, fragmentation, and debates over strategy and representation. Ultimately, a nation with multiple voices and often conflicting visions of swaraj emerged from within the broad freedom struggle.
The Quit India Movement (1942), despite its ruthless suppression, demonstrated an unprecedented level of mass participation and the unwavering willingness of ordinary people to risk everything for the cause of independence, significantly accelerating the transfer of power.
Key Dates and Events (Selected)
1919–1920: Rowlatt Act passed; Jallianwalla Bagh massacre; Gandhian satyagraha becomes a nationwide movement; Khilafat Committee formed.
1920: Nagpur Resolution; Non-Cooperation Movement adopted.
1921: Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement expands to new areas; Chauri Chaura incident (February 1922) and subsequent withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement by Gandhi.
1928: Bardoli Satyagraha led by Vallabhbhai Patel; Simon Commission arrives in India; HSRA founded by Bhagat Singh and others.
1929: Lahore Resolution (December) declaring Purna Swaraj (complete independence) as the goal of the Congress.
1930: Salt March (Dandi March) from Sabarmati to Dandi (March-April); start of the Civil Disobedience Movement (April); Gandhi-Irwin Pact negotiations begin.
1931: Gandhi–Irwin Pact signed (March); Second Round Table Conference in London (September-December).
1932: Civil Disobedience re-launched after the failure of the Round Table Conference; Poona Pact (September) between Gandhi and Ambedkar to resolve the issue of separate electorates for Dalits; movement continues with diminished momentum.
1934: Civil Disobedience Movement officially called off.
1942: Cripps Mission; Quit India Movement launched (Wardha, 14 July 1942; Do or Die speech; August 8 AICC endorsement); widespread arrests and repression.
Discussion and Study Prompts
Project prompts:
List all the social groups that joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921 and describe their hopes and struggles.
Explain why the Salt March was an effective symbol of resistance, connecting it to the everyday lives of people.
Reflect on what it meant to be a woman participant in the Civil Disobedience Movement, considering their motivations and challenges.
Comparative questions:
Why did political leaders differ on separate electorates for different communities? Compare India’s anti-colonial movement with similar struggles in Indo-China, highlighting similarities and differences in objectives and methods.
Conceptual questions:
Explain the idea of satyagraha and why Gandhi framed it as an active form of resistance rather than passive, emphasizing its moral and psychological dimensions.
Historical events to report on:
Jallianwala Bagh massacre (its causes, events, and impact); Simon Commission (its purpose, boycott, and effects); and the Lahore Resolution (1929) declaring Purna Swaraj (its significance and implications).
Supplementary Images and Symbols (Referencing Figures in the Text)
Bharat Mata imagery and its evolution (Fig. 12, Fig. 14a): representations of India’s motherland as a unifying symbol; debates over inclusive iconography and its reception by different communities.
The Swaraj flag and tricolor designs (Swadeshi era): different versions and their symbolism (lotus, crescent, spinning wheel) as representations of national unity and self-reliance.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak imagery and other symbols (Fig. 11): imagery used to invoke unity across religious symbols and foster national belonging during different phases of the nationalist movement.
Key Personages and Groups Mentioned
Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi): central figure in Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience; advocate of non-violence and mass mobilization; played a pivotal role in unifying diverse Indian communities.
Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali (Khilafat leaders): Brothers who were instrumental in forming the Khilafat Committee and collaborating with Gandhi to unify Hindu and Muslim participation during the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Vallabhbhai Patel: key leaders who emerged during the movements, representing different constitutional, socialist, and integrationist voices shaping the independence movement.
B. R. Ambedkar: Dalit leader and jurist who advocated for separate electorates for Dalits, later supporting the Poona Pact for reserved seats; engaged in crucial debates over Dalit rights and representation within the broader nationalist project; principal architect of the Indian Constitution.
Alluri Sitarama Raju: tribal guerrilla leader in the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh who supported Gandhi’s anti-colonial aim but insisted on forceful, militant resistance against British forest laws.
The HSRA (Hindustan Socialist Republican Army): revolutionary organization including figures like Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das, and Ajoy Ghosh, who engaged in revolutionary acts against British rule to achieve complete independence.
Formulas and Numerical References (LaTeX)
Price rise during WWI:
Salt March distance:
Salt March duration:
Participants in Salt March: volunteers at the outset
Arrests during Civil Disobedience:
Famine/epidemic deaths (1921 census):
Import decline in foreign cloth (1921–1922): from to
Dates of major milestones:
Rowlatt Act passed:
Jallianwalla Bagh massacre:
Bardoli Satyagraha:
Lahore Resolution declaring Purna Swaraj:
Salt March: start date ; Dandi march end:
Gandhi–Irwin Pact:
Poona Pact:
Quit India Resolution: ; Do or Die speech:
Connections to Earlier Concepts
Nationalism in Europe and the idea of nation-states provided a framework for understanding how identity and belonging can be redefined; in India, anti-colonial struggle became a core mechanism for forging a national consciousness across diverse groups.
The Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience movements illustrate how mass movements can mobilize varied social segments (urban middle class, peasants, workers, women, tribal communities) around a shared goal while accommodating divergent aspirations and local interpretations of swaraj.
The role of symbols (Bharat Mata, tricolor flags, the Swaraj flag) and the reinterpretation of history were crucial in creating a common imaginative space for Indians, fostering a shared sense of past glory and future destiny.
Ethical and Practical Implications
Non-violence as a strategic ethical stance: Gandhi’s emphasis on truth, non-violence, and civil disobedience rests on appealing to the conscience of both the oppressor and the community; this raises questions about effectiveness, limits, and the potential for violence to emerge as a reaction to repression (as seen in Chauri Chaura and subsequent shifts).
Tensions between unity and plurality: while the movement aimed to unite diverse groups, it often exposed fault lines—economic classes, caste groups, and religious communities—requiring ongoing negotiation and compromise within the Congress and among different leaders.
Dalit rights and representation: Ambedkar’s demand for separate electorates highlighted the need to address social inequalities within the nationalist project; the Poona Pact represented a negotiated compromise, yet it also underscored the limits of integration within a single national framework and the enduring challenges faced by marginalized communities.
Gender roles and women’s participation: women’s involvement during the Civil Disobedience Movement broadened public engagement, but Gandhi’s vision of women’s roles often emphasized social service over political leadership, reflecting ongoing debates about gender and political agency within the movement.
Comparative perspectives: the chapter invites comparing India’s movement with anti-colonial struggles in Indo-China, underscoring diverse routes to independence and the role of local context, leadership, and external factors in shaping outcomes.
Brief Timeline (Condensed)
1919: Rowlatt Act; Jallianwalla Bagh massacre; Gandhi’s call for non-cooperation begins; Amritsar repression and martial law.
1920: Khilafat joins with Non-Cooperation; Nagpur Congress adopts the program.
1921–22: Movement expands to towns and countryside; economic boycott grows; Bardoli emerges as a key rural success; Chauri Chaura incident leading to withdrawal.
1928–29: Growth of revolutionary groups (HSRA); Simon Commission; Lahore Resolution for Purna Swaraj.
1930: Salt March; Civil Disobedience Movement escalates; Gandhi–Irwin Pact signed in 1931.
1932–34: Civil Disobedience loses momentum; movement re-launched later yet with diminished force; debates about constitutional means vs mass action continue.
1942: Quit India Movement launches a new wave of mass resistance; substantial participation across classes; ultimately quelled by the British.
Final Note
The nationalist project in this period was a balancing act: forging unity across diverse aspirations while navigating internal disagreements and external pressures. The movement’s legacy lies in both its successes (mass mobilization, powerful symbolic symbolism, plus temporary but meaningful reforms) and its unresolved tensions (representation, communal politics, and the path to complete independence).