2ND MAJOR

Literary Genres and Classifications

Story

A description, either true or imagined, of a connected series of events.

Narrative Poetry

Objective poetic forms that tell a story, including Ballad, Epic, and Metrical Romance.

Dramatic Poetry

Poetic works written for theatrical performance, such as Drama.

Lyric Poetry

Subjective, emotion-driven poetry including Elegy, Sonnet, Ode, Dramatic Monologue, Hymn, and Epithalamion.

Comedy

Dramatic genre focused on humor; includes Romantic Comedy, Comedy of Humours, Comedy of Manners, and Restoration Comedy.

Tragedy

Dramatic genre dealing with serious themes and heroic downfalls; includes Heroic Tragedy, Senecan Tragedy, Tragi-comedy, and Revenge Tragedy.

Fiction

Narrative prose dealing with imaginary events and characters, encompassing Short Stories and Novels (Picaresque, Epistolary, Bildungsroman, Künstlerroman, Regional, Non-fiction Novel, Gothic, and Novelette).

Non-fiction

Prose writing based on factual events and real people, including Essays, Pamphlets, Autobiographies, Biographies, and Travelogues.

Literary Criticism

Theoretical frameworks used to analyze literature, including Post-colonial, Feminist, Marxist, Psychoanalytic, Archetypal, Moralistic, Phenomenological, Structuralist, Reader-response, and Stylistics.

Folklore, Mythology, and Legend

Myth

A traditional story of unknown origin that relates to historical events and serves to explain natural phenomena, institutions, or societal events.

Mythology

A collection or group of simple myths originating from a specific culture or religion created to teach, inform, and explain the world around them.

Folklore

The traditions, customs, beliefs, and stories preserved and passed down within a specific culture or community.

Folktales

Traditional oral stories created by ordinary people to explain the world, recorded in written form across Europe by the 12th century.

Fairytale

A make-believe narrative featuring magical creatures, supernatural events, or extraordinary powers.

Legend

A story set in the historical past that combines factual historical elements with fictional elaboration.

Romantic Poetry and Symbolism

Sunflowers in "Ah Sunflower"

Symbol in William Blake's poem representing humans and their longing or desire for everlasting life ("Seeking after that sweet golden clime / Where the traveler's journey is done").

Speaker in "Crossing the Bar"

A dying man reflecting on passing into the afterlife ("Sunset and evening star / And one clear call for me…"), written by Alfred, Lord Tennyson.

Rural Scenery

A central recurring motif of the English Romantic movement, which celebrated nature, the common person, individual emotion, and melancholy.

Mythology and Classical Deities

Hades (Roman: Dis)

Greek God of the Underworld, King of the Dead, and Wealthiest God (due to underground mineral wealth); notably NOT the God of Death.

Thanatos

The Greek God of Death.

Aphrodite (Roman: Venus)

Goddess of love and beauty.

Apollo (Roman: Apollo)

God of music, poetry, archery, and the sun.

Ares (Roman: Mars)

God of war.

Artemis (Roman: Diana)

Goddess of the moon, wilderness, and the hunt.

Asclepius (Roman: Aesculapius)

God of medicine and healing.

Athena (Roman: Minerva)

Goddess of wisdom, craft, and strategic warfare.

Cronus (Roman: Saturn)

Titan God of time, the sky, and agriculture.

Demeter (Roman: Ceres)

Goddess of fertility, agriculture, and crops.

Dionysus (Roman: Bacchus)

God of wine, theater, and ecstasy.

Eros (Roman: Cupid)

God of love and desire.

Gaea (Roman: Terra)

Personification of Mother Earth.

Hephaestus (Roman: Vulcan)

God of fire, metalworking, and craftsman for the gods.

Hera (Roman: Juno)

Queen of the gods and goddess of marriage.

Hermes (Roman: Mercury)

Messenger of the gods and guide to travelers.

Persephone (Roman: Proserpina)

Queen of the Underworld and daughter of Demeter.

Poseidon (Roman: Neptune)

God of the sea, earthquakes, and horses.

Zeus (Roman: Jupiter)

King of the gods and ruler of the sky and thunder.

Didactic Poetry and Moral Themes

Zip the Lip

Moral poem by William Norris instructing individuals to observe confidentiality and exercise caution in speech ("If your lips would keep from slips / Five things observe with care; / To whom you speak; of whom you speak / And how, when, and where").

The Trojan War and Epic Narratives

The Trojan War (Modern View)

Understood in contemporary analysis as a war over lands and boundaries.

Eris and the Golden Apple

Eris, goddess of discord, was excluded from the wedding of King Peleus and Thetis; she threw an apple inscribed "te kallisti" ("to the fairest") into the hall.

Judgment of Paris

Paris judged Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, choosing Aphrodite after she bribed him with the love of Helen of Sparta, triggering the Trojan War.

Trojan War Alliances

Trojan Allies included Aphrodite, Ares, Apollo, and Artemis. Greek (Achaean) Allies included Hera, Athena, Poseidon, Hermes, and Hephaestus.

Key Trojan War Figures

Agamemnon led the Greeks; Achilles withdrew after losing his concubine; Patroclus fought in Achilles' armor and was killed by Hector; Achilles killed Hector in revenge.

Classical Epics vs. Modern Novels

Homer

Ancient Greek blind poet attributed with composing the foundational epics The Iliad and The Odyssey.

Ulysses

Modernist novel by James Joyce mapping a single day (June 16, 1904) in the life of Leopold Bloom as he walks around Dublin and meets Stephen Dedalus.

The Odyssey Plot & Stops

Epic detailing Odysseus's 20-year separation from Ithaca (10 years fighting in Troy, 10 years traveling home). Key stops include Circe's Island (turning men to beasts), Cyclops' Island (blinding Polyphemus), and Calypso's Island (detainment).

Penelope and Telemachus

Odysseus's wife Penelope waited 20 years, delaying suitors with an archery contest (stringing Odysseus's bow and shooting through 12 axe heads) which Odysseus completed in disguise alongside his son Telemachus.

Regional and Multi-Cultural Literature

Egyptian Literature

Geographically located in North Africa and categorized under African literature.

The Joy Luck Club

Novel by Amy Tan focusing on mother-daughter relationships and familial stories shared over mahjong games among Chinese immigrant families (Suyuan & June Woo, An-mei & Rose Hsu, Lindo & Waverly Jong, Ying-ying & Lena St. Clair).

Samsara

Hindu principle from the Bhagavad Gita referring to the endless cycle of life, death, and rebirth ("Curving back within myself, I create again and again").

Nirvana

The ultimate state of liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth in Indian philosophy.

Purusha

Primal cosmic entity whose sacrifice gave rise to the universe and humanity.

Dharma

Universal moral law, duty, righteousness, and cosmic order in Hinduism.

Muchukunda

King in Indian lore who recognized the emptiness of his worldly life, abandoned his kingdom, and became a wandering sadhu.

Kalidasa

Ancient Sanskrit poet and playwright known as the "Shakespeare of India" (Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata influences).

R.K. Narayan

Indian author who created the fictional town of Malgudi (Swami and Friends, The Guide, Malgudi Days).

Salman Rushdie

Postcolonial author noted for magical realism (Midnight's Children, The Satanic Verses).

Rabindranath Tagore

Bengali author and first Indian Nobel laureate in Literature (1913, Gitanjali).

Modernist Techniques and Plot Devices

Stream of Consciousness

Narrative technique portraying the continuous, unedited flow of a character's internal thoughts (used heavily by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf).

Magic Realism

Literary style blending realistic narrative settings with magical or surreal elements.

Deus Ex Machina

Plot device in which an unexpected power or event resolves a hopeless situation.

Carnivalization

Literary technique using humor, chaos, and subversion to disrupt established social hierarchies and norms.

Cliffhanger

Plot device ending abruptly at a crucial moment of tension without immediate resolution.

Foil

A character designed to contrast sharply with another character to highlight specific traits.

Anti-hero

A central protagonist who lacks conventional heroic attributes such as morality, courage, or idealism.

Archetype

A universal symbol, character pattern, or motif recurring across literature.

Imagination

Essential prerequisite for creative literature, as exemplified in Herman Melville's Moby Dick, Dan Brown's Angels and Demons, and Juan Crisostomo Sotto's Lidia.

Philippine Literature: Short Stories, Drama, and Poetry

The Happiest Boy in the World

Short story by N.V.M. Gonzalez written from a third person omniscient point of view, centered on Jose riding a carabao while reading his father's letter to Ka Ponso.

Magnificence

Short story by Estrella Alfon where the title refers to the mother's comforting and protective presence when shielding her children from an abusive man named Vicente.

The Small Key

Short story by Paz Latorena where Soledad opens a locked trunk with a small key to find old clothes and personal items belonging to her husband Pedro's deceased first wife.

Bonsai

Poem by Edith Tiempo exploring the theme of enjoying little things and scaling love down to tangible, cherished keepsakes (son's note, father's tie, scarf, queen picture, money bill).

Three Rats

Play by Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero featuring Gonzalo, whose statement "I attach myself to nothing and to nobody" reveals his deep emotional indifference.

The Centipede

Short story by Rony V. Diaz reflecting the theme that childhood relationships between siblings can be painful, expressed through Eddie's tense conflict with his cruel sister Delia.

The Bolo

Short story by Loreto Paras Sulit where impoverished sisters Clara and Sita struggle over selling a treasured heirloom bolo given by a husband.

Like the Molave

Poetic work by Rafael Zulueta da Costa emphasizing the strength and resilience of the Filipino spirit.

Comparative Philippine Literary Themes

How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife (strong family ties), May Day Eve (youthful love), I Am a Filipino (pride and honor), Footnote to Youth (untimely love), Scent of Apples (alienation and colonial mentality).

Shakespearean Tragedies and Classical Quotations

Tragedy of Parental Love

Theme exemplified by Shakespeare's King Lear, where Lear banishes Cordelia and is betrayed by Goneril and Regan.

Tragedy of Political Ambition

Theme exemplified by Macbeth, where unchecked ambition and prophecy lead Macbeth to murder King Duncan.

Tragedy of Love

Theme exemplified by Romeo and Juliet, detailing the fatal misunderstandings of star-crossed lovers.

Tragedy of Jealousy

Theme exemplified by Othello, where Iago manipulates Othello into killing Desdemona.

Tragedy of Revenge

Theme exemplified by Hamlet, following Prince Hamlet's moral struggle to avenge his father's murder.

"The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, but ourselves"

Line spoken by Cassius in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, asserting that individuals control their own destiny ("Dreams do not work unless you do").

Folkloric Structures and Poetics

Cumulative Tales

The simplest folklore forms relying on repetitive patterns, rhythm, and incremental addition rather than complex plot structures (e.g., The House That Jack Built).

Drolls

Short comic theatrical sketches adapted from existing plays.

Gnomic Verse

Poetic forms embedded with maxims, proverbs, and moral aphorisms.

Fables

Short didactic stories utilizing animal characters to convey moral lessons.

Haiku

Japanese poetic form consisting of 3 lines and 17 syllables (5-7-5) focusing on nature and incorporating a seasonal word (kigo).

Tanka

5-line Japanese poetic form following a 5-7-5-7-7 syllable structure centered on love and nature, containing a caesura (pause).

Choka

Unrestricted Japanese poetic form consisting of alternating lines of 5 and 7 syllables ending in 7-7.

Renga

Collaborative linked-verse poetry composed of successive tanka stanzas.

Limerick

A 5-line humorous poem with an AABBA rhyme scheme, popularized by Edward Lear.

Satire

Literary technique criticizing social vices and human folly through humor, irony, or exaggeration (includes Horatian, Juvenalian, and Menippean satire).

Parody

A comedic work created to imitate and mock an existing style, author, or genre.

Farce

Broad comedic style characterized by absurd situations, slapstick physical humor, and deliberate exaggeration.

Tragic Flaws (Hamartia) and Epic Themes

Hamartia

A tragic flaw, error in judgment, or fatal weakness within a protagonist that leads to their ultimate downfall.

Hubris

Excessive pride or dangerous overconfidence, seen in Icarus flying too close to the sun and Victor Frankenstein creating artificial life.

Literary Hamartia Examples

Hamlet (overthinking and fear of direct confrontation), Macbeth (violent political ambition), Romeo & Juliet (impatience and impulsive passion), Othello (extreme susceptibility to jealousy), Oedipus (intellectual pride).

Epic of Gilgamesh

Ancient Mesopotamian epic detailing King Gilgamesh and Enkidu's adventures; its main theme is the human quest for immortality and the eventual acceptance of mortality.

Gothic Literature, American Works, and Historical Quotes

The Legend of Sleepy Hollow

Gothic short story by Washington Irving set in Sleepy Hollow, centered on Ichabod Crane, Brom Bones, and the Headless Horseman; theme revolves around supernatural folklore.

"These are the times that try men's souls"

Famous line written by Thomas Paine in The Crisis to rally American revolutionaries.

Historical & Literary Authors

Thomas Jefferson (Declaration of Independence), Thomas Malory (Le Morte d'Arthur), Thomas More (Utopia), Thomas Gray ("Ignorance is bliss").

Chinua Achebe's "Vulture"

Poem featuring bleak imagery ("Broken bones a dead tree") to illustrate a desolate atmosphere.

The Song of Hiawatha

Famous epic poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow ("By the shore of Gitchie Gimme / By the shining Big-Sea Water…").

Classical Greek Heroes

Hercules (completed Twelve Labors including Nemean Lion and Hydra), Perseus (slain Medusa), Theseus (killed the Minotaur in the Labyrinth), Bellerophon (tamed Pegasus and defeated the Chimera).