AP Gov

5.1 Voting rights and Models of voting behavior 

1. Describe the voting rights protections in the Constitution and legislation

2. Describe different models of voting behaviors 

Who in America has the right to vote; this is the Franchise. 

Franchises were a minority, they were mainly wealthy landed white Americans (Eligible voters in 1789) 

• Because of Andrew Jackson, he made it so that all white men have the right, basically expanding the Franchise. 

• Going into the civil war all white men have the right to vote. 

Article I Section IV: 

• It states that the state legislature has the power to determine who gets the chance to vote

• However, congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations 

Amendments to know: 

15th Amendment

• Recognized the right of black men to vote 

17th Amendment 

• Granted the people the right to vote senators into office

19th Amendment 

• Recognized women’s right to vote 

24th Amendment

• Abolished poll taxes which were used to suppress the minority vote 

26th Amendment

• Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 

Voting Models: 

Rational Choice Voting 

• Person vote based on their self-interest, and carefully study the issues and platforms. 

Retrospective Voting

• Person votes based on the recent past track record of the politician in question 

Prospective Voting

• Persons vote based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future. 

Party line voting 

• A person votes for all the candidates of the voter's party

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5.2 Voter Turnout 

Explain the roles that individual choice and state laws play in voter turnout in elections.

1. Structural Barriers 

2. Political Efficacy 

3. Demographics 

4. Type of Elections 

Structural Barriers 

• A policy or law that can prevent people from voting or encourage people to vote 

Voter ID Arguments 

• Republicans argue that ID laws decrease the possibility of voter fraud 

• Democrats point to a growing body of research that indicates voter fraud is not a serious threat and rarely happens 

  • Therefore these laws only serve to keep minorities out of the voting booth

Political Efficacy 

• A citizen's belief about whether their vote matters 

Demographics

• If you are a member of that demographic you are more likely to vote than any other group. 

Type of Elections 

• National elections get more votes than state or local elections. 

Things to take into consideration: 

Party Identifications 

Candidate Characteristic 

Political Issue 

Religion beliefs 

The ballot requirements, electoral college, single sit congressional, winner takes all, 

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5.3 Political Parties 

Describe Likage institutions 

Explain the function and impact of political parties on the electorate and government. 

Linkage Institution 

• Societal structure that connects people to their government or the political process. 

All Linkage Institutions: Political parties, interest groups, elections, media 

Political Party

• An organization is at least partially defined by a certain ideological belief that puts forward candidates for election. 

Democrat- Liberal 

Republican- Conservative 

What do parties do? 

• Mobilization and education of voters 

• Write and publish the party platform 

• Find quality candidates 

• Provide campaign management support for their candidates 

Canvassing Campaigns are when people from that party volunteer to call people or show up at people’s front doors to persuade people to vote for their candidate. 

Before and DURING THE CAMPAIGN PROCESS 

 Political parties play a significant role in linking the average American to the political process. 

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5.4  How and Why Political Parties CHANGE

How political parties change over time and realign themselves to better reflect the attitudes and preferences of Americans

Main Question: 

Explain Why and how political parties change and adapt.

How parties change: 

The way parties interact with candidates

• PAST: The party mattered and the candidate was a secondary  

• PRESENT: The candidate matters and the party is a secondary 

Parties have changed their platforms over time to appeal to a larger swath of the electorate. 

• The change in platform will never contradict the larger ideology of the party. 

• Parties have shifted emphasis on their platforms or even changed their messaging to appeal to more voters.

All of this is especially true when it comes to a coalition of voters. 

Coalition 

• Is a demographic group like millennials retired persons or evangelical Christians and if they vote as a block they can significantly alter the outcome of an election. 

• Therefore  parties do everything they can to appeal to different coalitions (groups) 

Altering the entire party structure 

Party realignment, they do this when a series of elections where the party is badly defeated. 

(This a huge sign for the losing party that their priorities compared to the general electorate priorities are wonky.)  

2. The second way party structure has changed is through changes to campaign finance laws 

-1970s campaign finance laws and the Supreme Court decisions have changed how much money can be lawfully given to candidates and parties 

3. Communication and Data- Management Technology

• Since tech has advanced so has the party’s ability to mine data on certain groups, and then in turn use that data to win elections. 

EXAMPLE: 2012  Presidential election

• Republican Mitt Rommey’s campaign developed the  PROJECT ORCA, which is an app that voters could use to let the campaign know that they voted.  

• Tech didn't work in the end for this, however, the thinking behind Project Orca was a HUGE shift in how the party got their people. 

EXAMPLE: Project Narwhal [MORE SUCCESSFUL] 

• This was a significant leap forward in canvassing techniques 

• With this Obama's campaign could target emails, and text messages, to people not only based on their demographics but also based on their psychographics 

Demographics

Classify people according to external traits: Race, Gender, Age, and region. 

Psychographics 

Classify people according to their inner life: Personality, attitudes, aspirations, and desires. 

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5.5 Third Party Politics

Explain how structural barriers impact third-party and independent candidates' success. 

Why can't third parties win? 

If the third party is organized and well funded they can get the nation's attention, and if it turns out that a significant portion of Americans believe in one of the platforms of those parties then that issue can rise to prominence.  

An example of this would be the party’s platform in the late 19th century the populist party, this targeted farmers, and one of their chief agenda items was to push for the ultimate coinage of silver and then they got a lot of attention. 

1. The winner takes all voting districts. 

2. Incorporation of third-party agendas into the two major parties' platforms 

3. Third parties will continue to raise issues overlooked by the major parties who will then 

4. bring those issues into their platforms.

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5.6

Explain the benefits and potential problems of interest group influence on elections and policy-making. 

Explain how variation in types and resources of interest groups affect their ability to influence elections and policy-making. 

Interest group 

A group of people who gather around a policy issue to persuade policymakers to pass legislation favorable to the groups 

1. Educate voters and officeholders on the interest group’s chosen issue 

2. Engage in lobbying 

• Hold meetings with policymakers to try and influence them to pass legislation in their favor. 

3. Draft legislation - National Rifle Association

4. Mobilize its members to apply pressure on and work with legislators and government agencies. 

Iron Triangle 

• The strong, mutually beneficial relationship between interest groups, congressional committees, and government agencies. 

• Interest groups especially help members of congressional communities 

  • Provide them with policy info 

  • Provide campaign donations if the representative is sympathetic to the group’s goal. 

Issue networks 

• When many different interest groups and even entities outside of interest groups come together to achieve a short-term policy goal 

Hindrance or helps 

• An interest group activity can be influenced by inequality of political and economic resources. 

  • Since one of the most significant things interest groups can do for policymakers is help fund their campaigns, policymakers are much more incentivized to meet with well-funded interest groups. 

• Unequal access to decision-makers 

• Free rider problem 

  • When a larger group benefits from the efforts of an interest group than are members of the group 

Interest groups 

Groups that are trying to influence specific or general cause 

• To increase numbers and influence 

• Example: NRA, ACLU, etc 

Civil society

• Groups outside gov that advocate for policies 

Pluralist democracy 

• Federalist no. 10, multiple groups competing for powers 

• Typically, interest groups are said to embody pluralist democracy 

• This makes sense because there are interest groups on multiple sides of just about every political issue 

Types of interest groups: public interest groups: 

• Work for the collective interest of a broad group of individuals, not just its members 

• This further advocates for civil liberties and further promotes civil rights, education, and civil liberties. 

• Ex: American Association of Retired person 

Single issue groups

• Interest groups that focus advocacy on a single issue 

• Example: national rifle associated 

Types of interest groups: institutional groups 

• Represent state and local governments to lobby for federal funds. 

Professional associations/labor unions 

• American medical association 

• American bar association 

• AFL-CIO

Corporations 

• The U.S. chambers of commerce 

• National association  of manufacturers 

Functions and activities of interest groups

• Provide expert information to gov officials 

• Give office holders feedback from their constituents 

• Communicating with the group’s members 

Draft legislation 

• Suggest and support legislation

• Testify at committee hearings on the formulation of legislation 

• Write bills that can be introduced in Congress by a representative or senator

Mobilize membership 

• To apply pressure to legislators and government agencies. 

• Social media, phone, email, mail, town halls, etc. 

Iron triangles/ issues networks 

• Work with legislators and bureaucrats to ensure the policy is made that benefits the group’s members. 

Why do congressmen find this relationship useful? 

Is by electoral support, and from this, they get power and policy choices.. 

Why do bureaucrats find this relationship useful? 

They find this useful because of congressional political support, also they have power over the money, and they can do certain aspects. 

This is all tied in together and this is considered elite democracy.

Create PACs

• Raise and spend unlimited independent expenditures

- Make campaign contributions

- Endorse candidates 

GOVT

• Mobilize voters get them to the polls to vote, and advertise. 

Organizing protest 

Lobbying

• To persuade political leaders to support their group's position

• Provide information to congressmen 

• Lobbyists are policy specialists, congressmen are policy generalists

• Testify legislation 

• Draft legislation 

 Lobbying the country 

• Amicus curiae briefs 

• Litigation 

• File lawsuits to attempt to change policy through the courts 

• When constitutional rights are being violated

• When lawmakers are unlikely to change policy

Grassroots lobbying 

• Go directly to citizens and try to persuade them about an issue 

• Citizens must then take action for it to be effective 

• Contract representatives, town halls, vote, etc. 

Inequality of political and economic resources 

• Some groups have larger membership or are very well funded, increasing the influence they have. 

Legislation 

• Often benefits the membership of interest groups over the general public. 

Unequal access to decision-makers 

• Well-funded groups and those with large members typically have more access to policymakers. 

• Iron triangles 

• Elite democracy 

Free rider problem 

• People who benefit from a group’s efforts without joining (and paying dues) 

Revolving door 

• About half of the congressmen become lobbyists after leaving Congress, it is because they know the ropes and they are getting paid for the work that they already did in the past. 

Regulating Congressional lobbyist

• Must register with the gov 

• Must report earnings 

• Gifts to members of Congress are banned 

• Limit revolving door by instituting a waiting period 

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5.7

Explain how various political actors influence policy outcomes. 

Single issue interest groups:

• Pro-gun groups 

• Pro-life groups 

• Pro-choice groups  

These two movements typically overlap.

Social movements 

Protest movements 

Prohibition movement - mostly women tired of men Carrie nation, 

Christian temperance union 

Civil rights movement- civil disobedience

Social/political movements, professional organizations, interest groups, political parties, military, bureaucratic nations 

• Each one of these groups plays a role in getting new policies passed. 

1. Social and protest movements get the nation's attention on certain realities that need to be changed. 

2. Interest groups step in and draft potential legislation to present to lawmakers. 

3. When it comes to actually making laws, political parties and bureaucratic agencies get involved. 

4. When it comes time to implement and execute the law, bureaucratic agencies figure out the rules and regulations to accomplish that. 

5. The law is either implemented well or not. 

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5.8 Electing the PRESIDENT

Explain how the different processes work in a U.S. presidential election 

Explain how the Electoral College facilitates and impedes democracy

Electing a president

Candidates have first to earn their party’s nomination through primary elections. 

• Election in which members of a party vote on which candidate they want to represent them in the general election 

Some states hold an open primary.

• Any registered voter can vote in either party’s primary, but not both. 

Some states hold a closed primary. 

• Only people registered with the party can vote in those primaries. 

Caucasus

Voters discuss and debate however this is in person.

National convection- a big election 

Incumbent- a sitting president who served last year can serve again for his second term 

Incumbency advantage 

1. The incumbent has already won an election so they know how it's done

2. The incumbent is a known quantity 

• People already know how they’ll act as president 

3. The incumbent already has an army of volunteers and fundraisers ready to help out with another campaign. 

Election day- first Tuesday in December

Electoral college 

• Each state has the same number of electors as they have congressional reps. 

• They choose the same number so for example if one state has 32 electoral college possible votes then they will divide it into two and then the state of elections will vote that candidate into office. 

• MAINE AND Nebraska have rules that allow them to split the electoral votes but in every other state it's a winner-takes-all-all system 

• This system is a contention. 

An elector can vote against the pop vote and if they do then they are called faithless electors, and this usually doesn't happen. 

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5.9 Explain how the different processes work in the U.S. congressional elections 

Congressional elections 

• Occur every two years 

• Members of the House of Representatives have two-year terms 

• Senators have six-year terms 

  • ⅓ are up for reelection every two years 

NOTE:  The congressional election is on the same day as the presidential election, but elections that happen halfway through the presidential term are called the Midterm Election. 

Incumbency advantage 

• In an election, the incumbent is the one who is already in office and is running for reelection. 

• The incumbency advantage in Congress is even more pronounced than in presidential elections. 

  • That is because 90% of incumbents win their elections.

Why is that? 

• Name recognition 

  • Our congressional representatives are already pretty forgettable in the popular imagination, so the incumbency has the advantage. 

• Track Record

  • they can point to examples to demonstrate how well they’ve served their constituency, and that can help them get reelection 

• Established Funding

  • they spend most of their time working on their campaign for the next election, and it is easier for an incumbent to raise funds because they proved they can win an election, 

  •  incumbents have a staff who work for them, and mail their constituents with no cost at all. 

• Safe Districts 

  • Congressional representatives in the House gerrymander their districts to ensure reelection.

• Overall it is tough to unseat an incumbent. 

• Congressional candidates are chosen by Primary Elections, and depending on the state these can be either open or closed primaries. 

Primary Elections

Open primary - A voter can vote for a candidate of any party to be the candidate 

Closed primary- A voter has to be registered with the party to vote on their party’s candidates. 

Caucuses- Accomplished the same thing as a primary, but instead of selecting a candidate by secret ballot, caucuses choose candidates by open discussion and debate. 

How to: SCOTUS Comparison Question

SCOTUS - Supreme Court Of The United States 

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5.10

Explain how campaign organizations and strategies affect the election process. 

Political fundraising

The length of the election cycle can contribute to how much a candidate spends during the election process. 

Complexity of campaigns/ campaign professionals 

• Modern campaigns require professional consultants to run them 

  • Campaign manager 

  • Public relations expert 

  • Dedicated fundraisers 

  • Social media consultants 

Canvassing 

An army of experts each candidate has an army of paid and volunteer positions for people who call to visit voters to raise funds for the candidate. 

Social media- like Facebook can use their data to help gain voters.

Most of the candidate's spending money goes toward advertising. 

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5.11

Explain how the organizations, finance, and strategies of national political campaigns affect the election process. 

  Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) 

• Created a new federal commission called the Federal Election Commission 

• FEC was created to oversee and regulate the money being spent on political campaigns 

Established limits for: 

• How much money a person could give to a political candidate 

• How much money candidates could spend on their campaign 

This was because Buckley v Valeo in 1976 

Candidates with the most money will have more speech, so the Supreme Court restricted the amount of money an individual could contribute to a candidate, however, they staked down the law that restricted how much a candidate could spend on their campaign, this was deemed a violation of the 1st amendment. 

Financing campaigns 

Hard money

• Contributions are given directly to a candidate 

Soft money

• Money is donated to a party or interest group that can buy advertising on the candidates’s behalf. 

This was a loophole so another act patched it up, this was called BCRA.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) 

• This law increased the amount of hard money that could be donated to a candidate and made provisions to regulate and make transparent the amount of soft money that could be given as well. 

Stand By Your Ad Provision

Citizens United V FEC

Buckley v. Valeo 

• The court ruled that limits on individual and corporate contributions to campaigns were constitutional. 

• The court ruled that limits on how much a campaign can spend were unconstitutional. 

Citizens United v FEC 

• The court ruled that limits on contributions from individuals and corporations were a violation of free speech. 

• Corporate funding of ads and broadcasts cannot be limited 

• Political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment. 

MONEY = INFLUENCE 

Political Action Committee (PAC)  

• These are organizations that raise money for the sake of influencing the population to vote for their preferred candidate.

TYPE OF PACS

Connected PAC

• Formed by corporations or other entities like labor unions 

• Only collect funds from the members of their organization

• Money can be donated directly to candidates in limited quantities 

• Can raise unlimited amounts of money provided the individual limits are obeyed 

Non-Connected PAC

• Formed independently of an organization, usually around a specific public interest 

• Donations to Nonconnected PACs are limited by law 

• Can accept donations from the public and donate directly to candidates 

Super PAC 

• Can be formed by anyone 

• Can accept unlimited donations

• Cannot directly coordinate with a candidate 

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5.12

Explains the media's role as a linkage institution 

Linkage institutions 

• Societal structure that connects people to their government of their political process 

• Political parties, interest groups, elections, the media 

The media is like a watchdog agency, TV news created a big gap between the American public’s trust in the government. 

• News events 

• Investigative journalism, which exposed corruption and Roosevelt didn't like these ppl he even decided to call them muckrakers, however, these muckrakers pushed for laws/ policies. 

Election coverage/ political commentary

Lets us know who is running however, this creates the issue of Horse Race Journalism 

5.12 Media 

11/4/24

Why it matters? 

• Political participation is influenced by a variety of media coverage, analysis, and commentary on political events 

Depending on the news networks it starts becoming an ECHO Chamber because it only speaks of one ideology 

Traditional news media

• Newspapers, radio, network TV 

• Is this how get their news? Why is this contribution to the content on traditional news networks? 

Cable TV 

• 24-hour news cycle 

• More sensationalistic, focus on commentary over substance 

Internet, blogs

• Dramatically increased news choices 

Social media 

• Facebook, Twitter, etc 

• Often ideology driven 

• Reinforces existing beliefs 

• Allows citizens to influence what is seen as newsworthy, this is due to the algorithm 

Changing news media 

• Newspaper to Radio to TV to cable TV to internet to social media

• We change during the development

Narrowcasting 

• Targetting news coverage to specific groups of people

AP TEST 

gatekeeper 

• By deciding what is newsworthy, news media influences what becomes an issue and for how long, this is something that they keep from the public. 

Agenda settings 

• Media influences the list of issues to be addressed by the government 

• The media reports on an issue, causing the public to see it as important 

• Citizens vote or demand policy action on the issue. 

Scorekeeper 

• Focus on who is winning and losing the election and it provides excitement 

Horse race journalism 

• Focusing on polls rather than substantive issues 

• Citizens are less informed 

• This may lead to a bandwagon effect