Theories of Personality: Personality Theories
Psychodynamic Approach
- Based on the work of Sigmund Freud
- Has made a major contribution to our thinking with his ideas of the unconscious, repression, ego, etc.
- Explains behavior and personality in terms of unconscious dynamics within the individual
- Emphasizes internal conflicts, attachments, and motivations
- Adult personalities are formed by experiences in early childhood
Psychodynamic Theories
- Consists of a group of theories that view personality and behavior in terms of the dynamics of driving forces of personality and development such as desire, anxieties, and defenses
- All focus on unconscious mental forces that shape our personalities and the inevitable clash between conflicting forces (impulses/inhibition, individuals/society)
- Well-known Psychodynamic theorists include: Freud, Jung, Adler, Erikson
Projection:
- Blame it on others rather than admitting to it
- Meant to protect ego
- Emphasizes internal conflicts (id, ego, superego)
- Adult personalities -> experiences as a child
- Modern theories added: social and cultural factors
Issues to Consider
- After-the-fact explanations: very difficult to find empirical support for many of Freud’s views
- Modern psychodynamic theories more likely to see conflict arising from social and cultural factors
- However, this is the only approach that offers a fully-fleshed-out view of personality structure, development, and processes
Humanistic Approach
- These views focus on healthy, human strivings and the uniqueness of each person’s experience
- An approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential
- This perspective is based on the following ideas:
- We have an innate drive toward personal growth.
- We exercise free will to control our actions.
- We are rational beings driven by conscious, not unconscious needs.
- Approach that focuses on human experience, problems, potential, and ideals
- Human nature: ability to choose that is not controlled by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces
- Subjective Experience: private perceptions of reality
- Self-Actualization (Maslow): process of fully developing personal potentials
- Peak Experiences: temporary moments of self-actualization
Humanistic Theories
- Flaws:
- Not fully fleshed out theories, no structure of personality, mostly processes
- No strong empirical link between child rearing practices
- No self-concept
- Self-actualization is not clearly defined and it is hard to see the qualities in those described as self-actualizers
- Futuristic; human potential
- Striving to be a better person
- Not driven by unconscious needs
- Focused on the person; no regards to the environment
- Driven towards self-actualization (Maslow)
- Positive psychology movement
- Self-actualization is different for everyone
- No structure, no core concept
Cognitive Social Theories
- Use learning theory to explain the development of personality
- Situation is considered an important component
- Personality characteristics and situations interact to produce behavior
- Goes beyond traditional learning theories to introduce learned cognitions, and such concepts as vicarious learning, internal/external locus of control, person, situation, interaction
- More than just reaction to environment
- Interaction between person and situation
- Not just the person -> no past
Behavioral Perspectives
- Behaviorism
- “A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study observable behavior”
- Behavioral theorists view personality as “a collection of response tendencies that are tied to various stimulus situations.”
- They focus on personality development and how children’s response tendencies are shaped by classical conditioning, operant understanding, and observational learning
- How you respond in the reaction
- Trait/Type
- Personality is a relatively enduring and consistent set of characteristics/traits
- Trait theorists aim to describe personality with a small number of traits/factors
- Personality Trait
- Stable quality a person chows across most situations
- Trait
- More enduring
- More consistent
- Interaction with the situation
- Different types of trait theories:
- Somatic theories
- Theories focused on a taxonomy of traits
- Taxonomy (OCEAN)
The Heritability of Personality Traits
- Heritability
- A statistical estimate of how many variation in a trait can be attributed to genetics within a given population
- 0 - 1.0
- 0.5: 50% of the variation in a personality trait can be attributed to genetics
- 1.0: 100% of the variation in a personality trait can be attributed to genetics
- Heritability of personality traits is about 0.5.
- Within a group of people, about 50% of the variation associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the group.
- Adoption Studies
- Compare correlations between traits of children and their biological and adoptive parents
- Twin Studies
- Identical twins: share 100% of genes
- Fraternal twins: share about ½ genes, just like regular siblings
- Compare same-sex groups of identical and fraternal twins
- Look at personality traits in adopted identical and fraternal twins
Situational Influences
- Reciprocal Determinism
- Two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits
- Aspects of Individual
- Ex. temperament, learned habits, perceptions, and beliefs
- Aspects of Situation
- Ex. opportunities, rewards, or punishments, chance events
Parental Influences
- Parental child-rearing practices have a strong influence on who we become, but research has shown that it is not the primary determinant:
- The shared environment of the home has little influence on personality
- The non-shared environment is a more important influence
- Unique aspects of a person’s environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits
- Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time and that they use with all children
- Even when parents try to be consistent there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn out
- Nevertheless, parents still do influence their children in a number of ways:
- Religious beliefs and values
- Intellectual and occupational interests, skills
- Feelings of self-esteem/inadequacy
- Degree of helpfulness
- Influence on traits that are highly heritable:
Social Influence
- Peer Pressure
- Adolescent Culture
- Different peer groups, organized by different interests, ethnicity and status
- Peer acceptance is so important to children and adolescents that being bullied, victimized, or rejected by peers is far from traumatic than punitive treatment by parents
- Cultural Influences on Personality
- Culture
- A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community/society
- A set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community
- Individualistic Cultures
- The self is regarded as autonomous and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others
- Collectivistic Cultures
- The self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes
Individualistic Cultures vs Collectivist Cultures
- Individualistic Cultures
- Defined self as autonomous, independent of groups
- Give priority to individual, personal goals
- Value independence, leadership, achievement
- Give more weight to individual’s attitudes and preferences, than to group norms to explain behavior
- Attend to the benefits and costs of relationships; if costs exceed advantages, a person is likely to drop a relationship
- Collectivist Cultures
- Defined self as an interdependent part of a group
- Give priority to needs and goals of group
- Value group harmony, duty, obligation, security
- Give more weight to group norms than individual attitudes to explain behavior
- Attend to needs of group members, if relationship is beneficial to group, but costly to individual, the individual is likely to stay in the relationship
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