Linguistics Final

1. Syntax

Terminology

1. Syntax

• Definition: The branch of linguistics that studies the rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences in a language, particularly the order of words and how they combine to form meaningful phrases and sentences.

• Example: In English, a typical sentence structure follows a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) order, as in "She (Subject) eats (Verb) an apple (Object)."

2. Noun Phrase (NP)

• Definition: A phrase that has a noun (or pronoun) as its head and may include modifiers like adjectives, determiners, or other nouns.

• Example: "The quick brown fox" is a noun phrase where "fox" is the head noun, and "the," "quick," and "brown" are modifiers.

3. Verb Phrase (VP)

• Definition: A phrase that consists of a main verb and its auxiliaries (if any), along with any objects or complements.

• Example: "Has been running" is a verb phrase where "has been" are auxiliary verbs and "running" is the main verb.

4. Prepositional Phrase (PP)

• Definition: A phrase that starts with a preposition and ends with a noun phrase, functioning as a modifier.

• Example: "In the garden" is a prepositional phrase where "in" is the preposition and "the garden" is the noun phrase.

5. Head vs. Dependent

• Head: The central word of a phrase that determines the phrase's category (e.g., noun in a noun phrase).

• Dependent: Words that modify or complement the head within a phrase.

• Example: In the noun phrase "the big dog," "dog" is the head, while "the" and "big" are dependents.

6. Recursion

• Definition: The ability to embed phrases within phrases indefinitely, allowing for the creation of infinitely long and complex sentences.

• Example: "She believes that John thinks that Mary knows that the Earth is round."

7. Constituent

• Definition: A word or group of words that function as a single unit within a hierarchical structure.

• Example: In the sentence "The cat sat on the mat," "The cat" is a constituent (noun phrase) and "on the mat" is another constituent (prepositional phrase).

8. Clause

• Definition: A group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. Clauses can be independent (main clauses) or dependent (subordinate clauses).

• Example: "She danced" is an independent clause, while "because she was happy" is a dependent clause.

9. Semantic Case Roles

• Definition: The roles that participants play in the action or state described by a verb, indicating their relationship to the verb's meaning.

• Common Roles:

  • Agent: The doer of the action.

  • Patient: The entity that is acted upon.

  • Recipient: The entity that receives something.

  • Theme: The entity involved in the action, not necessarily undergoing a change.

  • Beneficiary: The entity that benefits from the action.

  • Experiencer: The entity that experiences a state or emotion.

  • Location: Where the action takes place.

  • Source: The starting point of a movement.

  • Goal: The endpoint of a movement.

• Example: In "John gave Mary a book," John is the Agent, Mary is the Recipient, and "a book" is the Theme.

10. Agent

• Definition: The entity that performs an action.

• Example: In "The chef cooked dinner," "The chef" is the agent.

11. Patient

• Definition: The entity that is affected by the action.

• Example: In "The chef cooked dinner," "dinner" is the patient.

12. Recipient

• Definition: The entity that receives something.

• Example: In "She sent her friend a letter," "her friend" is the recipient.

13. Theme

• Definition: The entity involved in the action without necessarily undergoing a change.

• Example: In "He read the book," "the book" is the theme.

14. Beneficiary

• Definition: The entity that benefits from the action.

• Example: In "She baked him a cake," "him" is the beneficiary.

15. Experiencer

• Definition: The entity that experiences a feeling or perception.

• Example: In "She feels happy," "She" is the experiencer.

16. Location

• Definition: The place where the action occurs.

• Example: In "They met at the park," "the park" is the location.

17. Source

• Definition: The starting point of a movement.

• Example: In "She walked from the store," "the store" is the source.

18. Goal

• Definition: The endpoint of a movement.

• Example: In "She walked to the store," "the store" is the goal.

19. Core Argument

• Definition: Essential participants in the action of a verb (typically subject and object).

• Example: In "They built a house," "They" and "a house" are core arguments.

20. Oblique (Argument)

• Definition: Non-essential participants in the action, often providing additional information like time, manner, or location.

• Example: In "She sang beautifully at the concert," "at the concert" is an oblique argument.

21. Intransitive

• Definition: Verbs that do not take a direct object.

• Example: "Sleep," "arrive." In "She sleeps," there is no direct object.

22. Transitive

• Definition: Verbs that take a direct object.

• Example: "Eat," "write." In "She eats an apple," "an apple" is the direct object.

23. Ditransitive

• Definition: Verbs that take both a direct and an indirect object.

• Example: "Give," "send." In "She gave him a book," "him" is the indirect object, and "a book" is the direct object.

24. Grammatical Relations

• Definition: The relationships between words in a sentence, particularly between subjects, objects, and verbs.

• Common Relations:

  • Subject: The doer of the action.

  • Direct Object: Receives the action directly.

  • Indirect Object: Receives the action indirectly or benefits from it.

  • Double Object Construction: A verb taking both a direct and an indirect object.

  • Passive: A sentence structure where the object becomes the subject, and the original subject may be omitted or introduced with "by."

• Example:

  • Active: "John (Subject) gave Mary (Indirect Object) a gift (Direct Object)."

  • Passive: "Mary (Subject) was given a gift (Direct Object) by John."

25. Subject

• Definition: The noun or noun phrase that performs the action of the verb.

• Example: In "The dog chased the cat," "The dog" is the subject.

26. Direct Object

• Definition: The noun or noun phrase that receives the action of the verb directly.

• Example: In "She read the book," "the book" is the direct object.

27. Indirect Object

• Definition: The noun or noun phrase that receives the direct object or benefits from the action.

• Example: In "He gave his friend a gift," "his friend" is the indirect object.

28. Double Object Construction

• Definition: A sentence structure where a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object without a preposition.

• Example: "She sent her brother a postcard."

29. Passive

• Definition: A sentence structure where the object of an active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence, often accompanied by a form of "be" and a past participle.

• Example:

  • Active: "The chef cooked dinner."

  • Passive: "Dinner was cooked by the chef."

Skills

1. Provide the Word Class for Each Word in a Sentence

• Approach:

  • Identify the role each word plays in the sentence.

  • Use definitions of word classes (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) to categorize each word.

• Example:

  • Sentence: "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."

  • Word Classes:

    • "The" – Article

    • "quick" – Adjective

    • "brown" – Adjective

    • "fox" – Noun

    • "jumps" – Verb

    • "over" – Preposition

    • "the" – Article

    • "lazy" – Adjective

    • "dog" – Noun

2. Identify the Constituents in a Simple Sentence

• Approach:

  • Break down the sentence into its main components: noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, etc.

• Example:

  • Sentence: "She reads books in the library."

  • Constituents:

    • "She" – Noun Phrase (NP)

    • "reads books" – Verb Phrase (VP)

    • "in the library" – Prepositional Phrase (PP)

3. Determine the Transitivity of a Verb

• Approach:

  • Check if the verb requires a direct object (transitive), doesn't require one (intransitive), or requires both a direct and indirect object (ditransitive).

• Examples:

  • Intransitive: "She sleeps." (No direct object)

  • Transitive: "She reads a book." (Direct object: "a book")

  • Ditransitive: "She gave her friend a gift." (Indirect object: "her friend"; Direct object: "a gift")

4. Identify Grammatical Relations of All Noun Phrases in an English Sentence

• Approach:

  • Determine the role each noun phrase plays: subject, direct object, indirect object, etc.

• Example:

  • Sentence: "John gave Mary a book."

  • Grammatical Relations:

    • "John" – Subject

    • "Mary" – Indirect Object

    • "a book" – Direct Object

5. Identify Semantic Case Roles of All Noun Phrases in an English Sentence

• Approach:

  • Assign semantic roles (agent, patient, recipient, etc.) based on the meaning of each noun phrase in relation to the verb.

• Example:

  • Sentence: "John gave Mary a book."

  • Semantic Case Roles:

    • "John" – Agent (doer of the action)

    • "Mary" – Recipient (receives the book)

    • "a book" – Theme (object being given)

6. Conduct Basic Syntactic Analysis on a Data Set from Another Language

• Approach:

  • Identify word classes and syntactic structures based on your understanding of syntax.

  • Compare structures to those of English to determine similarities and differences.

• Example:

  • Language: Spanish

  • Sentence: "Ella lee un libro en la biblioteca."

  • Analysis:

    • "Ella" – Pronoun (Subject)

    • "lee" – Verb (reads)

    • "un libro" – Noun Phrase (Direct Object)

    • "en la biblioteca" – Prepositional Phrase (Location)

2. Language Change & Language Contact

Terminology

1. Cognate

• Definition: Words in different languages that have a common historical origin and often similar meanings and forms.

• Example: English "mother," German "Mutter," and Spanish "madre" are cognates.

2. Borrowing

• Definition: The process by which one language adopts words from another language.

• Example: English has borrowed "sushi" from Japanese and "ballet" from French.

3. Proto-language

• Definition: An ancestral language from which a group of related languages is derived.

• Example: Proto-Indo-European is the hypothetical ancestor of many European and Asian languages.

4. Comparative Method

• Definition: A technique used to reconstruct proto-languages by systematically comparing related languages to identify regular sound correspondences.

• Example: By comparing "father" (English), "Vater" (German), and "pater" (Latin), linguists can infer the Proto-Indo-European word *pəter.

5. Sound Correspondence

• Definition: Systematic relationships between sounds in different languages that descend from a common ancestor.

• Example: The "p" in Latin "pater" corresponds to "f" in English "father."

6. Diachronic

• Definition: Pertaining to the study of how languages change over time.

• Example: Studying the evolution of English from Old English to Modern English is a diachronic approach.

7. Synchronic

• Definition: Pertaining to the study of a language at a specific point in time, without considering its historical development.

• Example: Analyzing contemporary English grammar is a synchronic approach.

8. Typology

• Definition: The classification of languages based on their structural features.

• Example: Classifying languages as Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) or Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) order.

9. Sound Change

• Definition: A systematic alteration in the pronunciation of sounds within a language over time.

• Example: The Great Vowel Shift in English changed the pronunciation of long vowels.

10. Mother Language

• Definition: The original language spoken by an individual’s parents, often the first language learned.

• Example: For a child born to French-speaking parents in Canada, French is the mother language.

11. Daughter Language

• Definition: A language that has evolved from a proto-language.

• Example: Spanish is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.

12. Family Tree Model

• Definition: A representation of languages branching out from a common ancestor, similar to a biological family tree.

• Example: The Indo-European family tree includes branches like Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages.

13. Swadesh List

• Definition: A compilation of basic vocabulary terms used in the study of language relationships and historical linguistics.

• Example: Words like "water," "mother," and "sun" are typically included in the Swadesh List.

14. Proto-form

• Definition: A reconstructed ancestral form of a word in a proto-language.

• Example: The Proto-Indo-European word *pəter is a proto-form for "father."

15. Language Contact

• Definition: The interaction between speakers of different languages, often leading to borrowing and convergence.

• Example: English has borrowed extensively from Norman French due to historical contact.

16. Loanwords

• Definition: Words adopted from one language into another without translation.

• Example: English "pizza" from Italian, "tsunami" from Japanese.

17. Bilingualism

• Definition: The ability to speak and understand two languages fluently.

• Example: A person who speaks both English and Spanish is bilingual.

18. Multilingualism

• Definition: The ability to speak and understand multiple languages fluently.

• Example: A person who speaks English, Spanish, and Mandarin is multilingual.

19. Language Shift

• Definition: The process by which a community of speakers shifts from using one language to another.

• Example: In some regions, communities have shifted from speaking indigenous languages to English.

20. Major Language Families:

• Indo-European: Includes languages like English, Spanish, Hindi, and Russian.

• Niger-Congo: Includes languages like Swahili, Yoruba, and Zulu.

• Austronesian: Includes languages like Malay, Tagalog, and Hawaiian.

• Uto-Aztecan: Includes languages like Nahuatl and Hopi.

Skills

1. Explain the Difference Between Cognate and Borrowing

• Cognate:

  • Origin: Shared historical origin.

  • Example: English "night," German "Nacht," and Latin "nox" are cognates.

• Borrowing:

  • Origin: Adopted from another language through contact.

  • Example: English "kangaroo" borrowed from an Australian Aboriginal language.

• Key Difference: Cognates derive from a common ancestor, whereas borrowings are taken from another language without shared ancestry.

2. Explain the Family Tree Model of Historical Linguistics

• Definition: A model that represents the relationships among languages as branches stemming from a common ancestor, much like a biological family tree.

• Explanation: Languages that share a common proto-language are grouped into families. Each branch represents a divergence from the proto-language, leading to daughter languages.

• Example: The Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian) branch out from Latin, the Proto-Romance language, which in turn branches out from Proto-Indo-European.

3. Use the Comparative Method to Identify Sound Correspondences, Write Sound Change Rules, and Determine Proto-forms for a Dataset of Cognates

• Step-by-Step Approach:

  1. Collect Cognates: Gather words from related languages that share similar meanings and forms.

     • Example Dataset:

       • English: "father"

       • German: "Vater"

       • Latin: "pater"

  2. Identify Regular Sound Correspondences: Look for systematic patterns in the differences between languages.

     • Observation: Latin "p" corresponds to German "V" and English "f."

  3. Write Sound Change Rules: Describe how sounds have changed from the proto-language to the daughter languages.

     • Rule: Proto-Indo-European p > Latin p; p > German v; *p > English f.

  4. Reconstruct Proto-forms: Based on the regular correspondences, infer the original proto-language form.

     • Proto-form: *pəter for "father."

• Application: Repeat this process across multiple cognate sets to build a comprehensive picture of sound changes and reconstruct proto-forms.

4. Recognize Major Language Families of the World and Where They Are Spoken

• Indo-European:

  • Regions: Europe, Iran, India.

  • Languages: English, Spanish, Hindi, Russian.

• Niger-Congo:

  • Regions: Sub-Saharan Africa.

  • Languages: Swahili, Yoruba, Zulu.

• Austronesian:

  • Regions: Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands.

  • Languages: Malay, Tagalog, Hawaiian.

• Uto-Aztecan:

  • Regions: Western United States, Mexico.

  • Languages: Nahuatl, Hopi.

• Other Notable Families:

  • Sino-Tibetan: Mandarin, Tibetan.

  • Afro-Asiatic: Arabic, Hebrew.

  • Dravidian: Tamil, Telugu.

3. Semantics & Pragmatics

Terminology

1. Synonyms

• Definition: Words that have similar or identical meanings.

• Example: "Big" and "large."

2. Antonyms (and the Types)

• Definition: Words with opposite meanings.

• Types:

  • Gradable Antonyms: Words with opposite ends of a scale.

    • Example: "Hot" vs. "cold."

  • Complementary Antonyms: Words where the presence of one implies the absence of the other.

    • Example: "Dead" vs. "alive."

  • Relational Antonyms: Words that express opposite directions or relationships.

    • Example: "Parent" vs. "child."

3. Polysemes

• Definition: Words that have multiple related meanings.

• Example: "Bank" (financial institution) vs. "bank" (side of a river).

4. Homophones

• Definition: Words that sound the same but have different meanings and/or spellings.

• Example: "To," "two," and "too."

5. Hypernyms

• Definition: Words that are more general and encompass a broader category.

• Example: "Animal" is a hypernym for "dog" and "cat."

6. Hyponyms

• Definition: Words that are more specific and fall under a broader category.

• Example: "Rose" is a hyponym of "flower."

7. Entailment

• Definition: A logical relationship where one statement necessarily follows from another.

• Example: "John killed the spider" entails "John killed something."

8. Denotation

• Definition: The literal, dictionary definition of a word.

• Example: The denotation of "snake" is a limbless reptile.

9. Connotation

• Definition: The associated or implied meanings of a word beyond its literal definition.

• Example: "Snake" connotes deceit or danger.

10. Reference

• Definition: The relationship between a word and the actual object or concept it refers to in the real world.

• Example: The word "tree" refers to a type of plant with a trunk and branches.

11. Sense

• Definition: The meaning of a word or phrase within the language system, independent of external reference.

• Example: The sense of "tree" includes the concept of a plant with a trunk, branches, and leaves.

12. Prototypes

• Definition: The most typical or representative examples of a category.

• Example: A robin might be a prototype for the category "bird."

13. Semantic Features

• Definition: Basic units of meaning that distinguish one word from another.

• Example: The semantic features of "bachelor" might include [+male], [+adult], [-married].

14. Inference

• Definition: Logical conclusions drawn from available information or premises.

• Example: From "She has a pet," one might infer "She is responsible for an animal."

15. Pragmatics

• Definition: The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in language.

• Example: The phrase "Can you pass the salt?" is understood as a request, not a question about ability.

16. Underdetermination

• Definition: Situations where the available context is insufficient to determine the exact meaning or reference.

• Example: The word "bank" without context could refer to a financial institution or the side of a river.

17. Cooperative Principle

• Definition: A principle proposed by philosopher H.P. Grice stating that participants in a conversation typically work together to communicate effectively.

• Example: Providing clear and relevant information in a conversation.

18. Gricean Maxims

• Definition: Rules that govern conversational interactions to make communication efficient and meaningful.

• Maxims:

  • Maxim of Quantity: Provide the right amount of information.

  • Maxim of Quality: Be truthful and avoid false statements.

  • Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.

  • Maxim of Manner: Be clear and orderly.

19. Semanticization

• Definition: The process by which pragmatic meaning becomes encoded into the lexical meaning of a word.

• Example: The word "broadcast" originally meant to scatter seeds broadly but now also means to transmit information widely via media.

20. Indexicality

• Definition: Words or phrases that gain meaning from their context, often referring to aspects like speaker identity, time, or location.

• Example: Words like "here," "you," and "now" are indexical.

21. Arbitrariness

• Definition: The concept that there is no inherent connection between the form of a word and its meaning.

• Example: The word "dog" has no inherent reason to represent the animal it denotes.

22. Iconicity

• Definition: The resemblance or similarity between the form of a word and its meaning.

• Example: Onomatopoeic words like "buzz" or "sizzle" resemble the sounds they describe.

Skills

1. Differentiate Reference from Sense

• Reference: The actual object or concept a word points to in the real world.

• Sense: The meaning or concept associated with a word within the language system.

• Example:

  • Word: "Dog"

  • Reference: A specific dog in the park.

  • Sense: The concept of a domesticated canine animal.

2. Differentiate Denotation from Connotation

• Denotation: The literal meaning of a word.

• Connotation: The emotional or cultural associations attached to a word.

• Example:

  • Word: "Home"

    • Denotation: A place where one lives.

    • Connotation: Feelings of comfort, safety, and family.

3. Identify Semantic Properties or Features Common to a List of Words

• Approach:

  • Break down each word into its basic semantic features.

  • Identify overlapping features.

• Example:

  • Words: "Cat," "dog," "rabbit."

  • Common Semantic Features: [+animal], [+pet], [+mammal], [+four-legged].

4. Discuss a Concept and Its Exemplars in Terms of Prototype Theory

• Prototype Theory: Categories are organized around typical or prototypical members.

• Example:

  • Concept: "Bird."

  • Prototypical Examples: Sparrow, robin.

  • Less Prototypical Examples: Penguin, ostrich.

5. Given Multiple Words, Determine the Type(s) of Semantic Relationship(s) That Holds Among Them

• Approach:

  • Analyze the relationships: synonyms, antonyms, hypernyms, hyponyms, etc.

• Example:

  • Words: "Car," "vehicle," "bike."

  • Relationships:

    • "Car" and "bike" are hyponyms of "vehicle."

    • "Vehicle" is a hypernym for "car" and "bike."

    • "Car" and "bike" are related as types of "vehicle."

4. Discourse & Prosody

Terminology

1. Discourse

• Definition: Extended written or spoken communication beyond the sentence level, encompassing how sentences are connected and organized to convey meaning.

• Example: A conversation, a lecture, or a written article.

2. Genre

• Definition: A category of discourse characterized by particular styles, structures, or purposes.

• Example: Narrative, conversation, academic paper, news report.

3. Written vs. Spoken

• Differences:

  • Written: More formal, structured, and edited; uses punctuation.

  • Spoken: More informal, spontaneous, includes hesitations and interruptions; relies on prosody.

• Example: A novel (written) vs. a casual conversation (spoken).

4. Interactional vs. Non-Interactional

• Interactional:

  • Definition: Discourse involving interaction between participants, such as conversations.

  • Example: A dialogue between two people.

• Non-Interactional:

  • Definition: Discourse not involving interaction, such as lectures or monologues.

  • Example: A speech by a politician.

5. Planned vs. Spontaneous

• Planned:

  • Definition: Discourse that is prepared in advance.

  • Example: A written essay, a prepared speech.

• Spontaneous:

  • Definition: Discourse that occurs in the moment without prior preparation.

  • Example: An impromptu conversation.

6. Formal vs. Informal

• Formal:

  • Definition: Structured and adheres to specific rules or conventions.

  • Example: Academic writing, official reports.

• Informal:

  • Definition: Casual and more flexible in structure.

  • Example: Text messages, casual conversations.

7. Given vs. New vs. Accessible Information

• Given Information:

  • Definition: Information already known or previously mentioned in the discourse.

  • Example: "The cat is sleeping. It is on the mat." ("The cat" is given information.)

• New Information:

  • Definition: Information introduced for the first time.

  • Example: "A new student joined our class."

• Accessible Information:

  • Definition: Information that is easily retrievable from the discourse context or memory.

  • Example: Referring back to "the book you lent me."

8. Prosody

• Definition: The rhythm, stress, and intonation patterns of speech.

• Components:

  • Pitch: Highness or lowness of the voice.

  • Volume: Loudness or softness.

  • Speech Rate: Speed of speaking.

  • Voice Quality: Timbre or color of the voice.

9. Prosodic Hierarchy

• Definition: The organization of prosodic units from smallest to largest, such as syllables, words, phrases, and sentences.

• Example: Syllables make up words; words make up phrases; phrases make up sentences.

10. Intonation Unit (IU)

• Definition: A segment of speech with a single intonation pattern, often corresponding to a complete thought or grammatical unit.

• Example: "I went to the store" is one intonation unit, while "and bought some milk" could be a continuing unit.

11. Intonation/Pitch Contour

• Definition: The pattern of pitch movement (rising, falling, etc.) across an utterance.

• Example: Rising intonation at the end of a question ("Are you coming?") vs. falling intonation at the end of a statement ("I am coming.").

12. Final vs. Continuing vs. Appeal Contour

• Final Contour:

  • Definition: Indicates the end of a thought or statement.

  • Example: "I finished my homework." (Falling pitch)

• Continuing Contour:

  • Definition: Indicates that the speaker has more to say or the thought is ongoing.

  • Example: "I finished my homework, and now I..." (Rising pitch)

• Appeal Contour:

  • Definition: Indicates a request, command, or appeal.

  • Example: "Please close the door." (Rising or falling-rising pitch)

13. Truncation

• Definition: Cutting off speech before the natural end of an utterance.

• Example: "I was going to..." without completing the thought.

Skills

1. Describe the Cues Associated with Intonation Unit Boundaries

• Cues:

  • Pauses: Brief silences between units.

  • Pitch Changes: Distinct rising or falling patterns.

  • Lengthening of Sounds: Prolonging certain syllables or words.

• Example: In the sentence "I went to the store, and I bought milk," a slight pause and pitch drop after "store" indicate the boundary between intonation units.

2. Identify the Characteristics of Written and Spoken Genres and Their Implications for Language Processing

• Written Genres:

  • Characteristics: Formal structure, clear organization, use of punctuation, often more complex syntax.

  • Implications: Requires more cognitive resources for parsing and comprehension.

• Spoken Genres:

  • Characteristics: Informal structure, reliance on prosody, use of fillers and hesitations, often simpler syntax.

  • Implications: Easier for real-time processing but may require more context understanding.

• Example:

  • Written: Academic articles use complex sentences and specialized vocabulary.

  • Spoken: Conversations use simpler sentences and more colloquial language.

5. Acquisition

Terminology

1. Observational vs. Experimental Studies

• Observational:

  • Definition: Research methods that involve watching and recording behavior without manipulating variables.

  • Example: Observing how children interact in a playground.

• Experimental:

  • Definition: Research methods that involve manipulating variables to determine cause and effect.

  • Example: Testing if exposure to certain words affects vocabulary acquisition.

2. Longitudinal vs. Cross-Sectional Studies

• Longitudinal:

  • Definition: Studies that follow the same subjects over an extended period.

  • Example: Tracking language development in children from infancy to adolescence.

• Cross-Sectional:

  • Definition: Studies that analyze data from subjects at one specific point in time.

  • Example: Comparing language skills of children at different ages simultaneously.

3. Child-Directed Speech (CDS)

• Definition: The way adults speak to children, often characterized by a higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, slower tempo, and simplified vocabulary.

• Example: "Look at the big, fluffy doggy!"

4. Common Phonological Errors

• Definition: Typical mistakes children make in sound production as they learn to speak.

• Examples:

  • Substitutions: Replacing one sound with another (e.g., "wabbit" for "rabbit").

  • Omissions: Leaving out sounds (e.g., "ca" for "cat").

  • Additions: Adding extra sounds (e.g., "bocow" for "bow").

5. Lexical Underextension

• Definition: When a child uses a word in a more limited context than adults do.

• Example: A child might use "dog" only for their own pet dog, not for all dogs.

6. Lexical Overextension

• Definition: When a child applies a word too broadly beyond its conventional meaning.

• Example: A child calls all four-legged animals "dog."

7. Canonical Babbling

• Definition: The stage in language development where infants produce repetitive syllable sequences, such as "bababa" or "dadada."

• Example: An infant repetitively saying "bababa" is engaging in canonical babbling.

8. Overregularization

• Definition: Applying regular grammatical patterns to irregular words.

• Example: A child saying "goed" instead of "went."

9. Sensitive Period for Acquisition

• Definition: The optimal timeframe in early life when the brain is particularly receptive to language learning.

• Example: Children acquiring their first language effortlessly before puberty.

Skills

1. Understand the Biological, Cognitive, and Social Foundations of Language Acquisition

• Biological:

  • Brain Development: Specific areas of the brain (e.g., Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas) are involved in language processing.

  • Neural Plasticity: The brain's ability to adapt and learn languages, especially during the sensitive period.

• Cognitive:

  • Memory: Ability to store and recall vocabulary and grammar rules.

  • Pattern Recognition: Identifying regularities in language input.

• Social:

  • Interaction: Engaging with caregivers and peers provides language exposure and practice.

  • Motivation: Desire to communicate needs and interact socially.

2. Recognize Developmental Milestones in Language Acquisition

• Typical Milestones:

  • 0-6 Months: Cooing and babbling.

  • 6-12 Months: Babbling with varied sounds, responding to name.

  • 12-18 Months: First words, understanding simple commands.

  • 18-24 Months: Vocabulary spurt, combining words.

  • 2-3 Years: Using simple sentences, expanding vocabulary.

  • 3-5 Years: Complex sentences, understanding grammar rules.

3. Be Familiar with Typical Phonological, Lexical, and Morphosyntactic Properties of Early Child Speech

• Phonological:

  • Simplification of Sounds: Omitting complex consonant clusters.

  • Example: "Stop" becomes "top."

• Lexical:

  • Rapid Vocabulary Growth: Acquiring new words quickly.

  • Example: Learning nouns like "dog," "ball," and verbs like "run," "eat."

• Morphosyntactic:

  • Sentence Structure Development: Moving from single words to multi-word sentences.

  • Example: From "Want cookie" to "I want a cookie."

6. Psycholinguistics

Terminology

1. Cognition

• Definition: The mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension, including thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving.

• Example: Processing the meaning of a sentence involves cognitive functions like memory and attention.

2. Statistical Learning

• Definition: The ability to detect patterns and regularities in language input, such as the likelihood of certain sounds or words following one another.

• Example: Infants recognizing that certain syllables frequently follow others in their native language.

3. Transitional Probability

• Definition: The likelihood that one element (e.g., a word or sound) follows another in a sequence.

• Example: In English, the word "the" is often followed by a noun like "cat" or "dog."

4. Corpus Linguistics

• Definition: The study of language as expressed in large, structured databases (corpora) of real-world text or speech.

• Example: Analyzing the frequency of specific words or phrases in the British National Corpus.

5. Collocation

• Definition: The habitual juxtaposition of a particular word with other words, indicating how they typically co-occur.

• Example: "Make a decision" vs. "do a decision" (the latter is incorrect due to poor collocation).

6. Reaction Time

• Definition: The time elapsed between a stimulus and the participant's response, often used to measure processing speed.

• Example: Measuring how quickly a person can name a color when shown a word.

7. Prototype Theory

• Definition: A cognitive theory suggesting that some members of a category are more central or representative than others.

• Example: A robin is a prototype for the category "bird," while a penguin is less prototypical.

8. Lexical Priming

• Definition: The phenomenon where exposure to a word affects the processing of subsequent words, making related words easier to access.

• Example: Hearing the word "bread" may make the word "butter" more accessible in subsequent speech.

9. Syntactic Priming

• Definition: The tendency to reuse syntactic structures recently encountered, facilitating language production.

• Example: Hearing a sentence like "She is eating an apple" may increase the likelihood of producing "He is drinking juice."

10. Embodied Cognition

• Definition: The theory that cognitive processes are deeply rooted in the body's interactions with the world, including sensory and motor systems.

• Example: Understanding the concept of "grasping an idea" is metaphorically linked to the physical act of grasping.

11. Electroencephalography (EEG)

• Definition: A technique for recording electrical activity of the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

• Example: Using EEG to study brain responses during language comprehension tasks.

12. N400

• Definition: An event-related potential (ERP) component associated with the processing of meaning in language, typically elicited by semantically incongruent words.

• Example: In the sentence "I take my coffee with cream and dog," the word "dog" would elicit a strong N400 response.

13. P600

• Definition: An ERP component associated with the processing of syntactic anomalies or complexities in language.

• Example: In the sentence "The cats runs fast," the word "runs" would elicit a P600 response due to subject-verb agreement error.

14. Absolute Direction

• Definition: Directions based on fixed points in space, such as north, south, east, and west.

• Example: "The library is north of the cafeteria."

Skills

1. Understand Key Concepts: Grasp How Mental Processes Interact with Language

• Integration of Concepts:

  • Cognition and Language: Understand that language processing involves various cognitive functions like memory, attention, and perception.

  • Example: Comprehending a sentence requires holding words in memory and parsing their syntactic relationships.

2. Recognize and Apply Concepts in Practical Scenarios

• Statistical Learning Example:

  • Scenario: An infant hears the sounds "ba," "na," "da" repeatedly. Over time, the infant starts to recognize "banana" as a distinct word based on transitional probabilities between sounds.

• Corpus Linguistics Example:

  • Scenario: Analyzing a large corpus of spoken English to determine the most common collocations for the word "strong" (e.g., "strong coffee," "strong opinion").

3. Analyze and Interpret ERP Components (N400, P600)

• Understanding ERP Components:

  • N400: Indicates semantic processing difficulty. A larger N400 suggests greater difficulty in integrating a word into a sentence.

  • P600: Indicates syntactic processing difficulty. A larger P600 suggests greater difficulty in processing grammatical anomalies.

• Example:

  • Sentence with N400: "She spread the warm bread with socks." ("socks" is semantically incongruent with "bread," eliciting a strong N400.)

  • Sentence with P600: "She spread the warm bread with sock." ("sock" is a grammatical error, eliciting a P600.)

7. Sociolinguistics

Terminology

1. Language Ideologies

• Definition: Beliefs and conceptions about language and its use within a society, often reflecting power dynamics and cultural values.

• Example: The belief that Standard English is superior to regional dialects.

2. Linguistic Discrimination

• Definition: Prejudice or unequal treatment based on language use, often targeting non-standard dialects or accents.

• Example: An employer preferring candidates who speak with a standard accent over those with a regional or minority accent.

3. Dialect

• Definition: A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary.

• Example: Southern American English vs. British English.

4. Idiolect

• Definition: The unique language use of an individual, including their specific vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

• Example: The distinct way each person speaks, shaped by personal experiences and preferences.

5. Variety

• Definition: Any distinct form of a language, including dialects, registers, and sociolects.

• Example: Legal English, academic English, and informal conversational English are different varieties of English.

6. Accent

• Definition: The way words are pronounced in a particular region or by a particular group, without necessarily differing in grammar or vocabulary.

• Example: The British "Received Pronunciation" vs. the American "General American" accent.

7. Register

• Definition: The level of formality or style used in a particular context or for a particular purpose.

• Example: Formal register in a job interview vs. informal register among friends.

8. Isogloss

• Definition: A geographical boundary that separates regions based on the presence or absence of a particular linguistic feature.

• Example: The boundary between areas that pronounce "r" in words like "car" and those that do not.

9. Diglossia

• Definition: A sociolinguistic situation where two language varieties coexist in a community, with each having distinct functions.

• Example: Modern Standard Arabic used in formal settings vs. regional Arabic dialects used in everyday conversation.

10. Code-Switching

• Definition: The practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a conversation or utterance.

• Example: A bilingual speaker might switch from Spanish to English when discussing technical terms.

11. Communities of Practice

• Definition: Groups of people who share a common language and practices, shaping each other's language use.

• Example: Medical professionals using specialized terminology within their community.

12. Rhoticity vs. Non-Rhoticity

• Rhoticity:

  • Definition: Pronouncing the "r" sound in words like "car" and "hard."

  • Example: General American English is rhotic.

• Non-Rhoticity:

  • Definition: Dropping the "r" sound in certain positions.

  • Example: British Received Pronunciation is non-rhotic.

13. Linguistic Divergence

• Definition: The process by which languages or dialects become more distinct from each other over time.

• Example: The divergence of American English and British English leading to distinct vocabularies and pronunciations.

14. Negative Concord

• Definition: A grammatical feature where multiple negative elements in a sentence express a single negation.

• Example: "I didn't see nothing." (Meaning "I didn't see anything.")

15. Habitual Be

• Definition: A feature in some dialects, such as African American Vernacular English (AAVE), where "be" indicates habitual or repeated action.

• Example: "She be working every day." (Meaning she works every day regularly.)

16. Zero-Copula

• Definition: The omission of the verb "to be" in certain grammatical contexts.

• Example: "She happy" instead of "She is happy."

17. Paradigm Leveling

• Definition: The process of reducing or eliminating inflectional variations within a language.

• Example: Simplifying verb conjugations to a single form across different subjects.

18. African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

• Definition: A dialect of English spoken primarily by African Americans, characterized by unique phonological, grammatical, and lexical features.

• Example Features:

  • Phonological: Consonant cluster reduction (e.g., "tes" for "test").

  • Grammatical: Use of habitual "be" (e.g., "She be running").

  • Lexical: Unique vocabulary (e.g., "finna" for "fixing to" meaning "about to").

19. Paradigm Leveling

• Definition: The process where inflectional distinctions are reduced or eliminated in a language.

• Example: The past tense of verbs in English where irregular forms become regular over time (e.g., "helped" instead of "holp").

Skills

1. Discuss Why All Dialects of a Language Are Equally ‘Good’ and There Is No Sense in Which a Dialect Is a ‘Corrupt’ Version of a Standard

• Explanation:

  • Linguistic Equality: All dialects have their own complex rules and structures, making them equally valid systems of communication.

  • Cultural Significance: Dialects often carry cultural and social identities, reflecting the history and values of their speakers.

  • Functional Adequacy: Dialects are fully capable of expressing the same range of ideas and emotions as any standard language.

• Example Argument: Just as British English and American English are different but equally capable, regional dialects like Southern American English or Cockney are not inferior but simply different systems.

2. Identify and Discuss Some Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

• Phonological Features:

  • Consonant Cluster Reduction: Dropping final consonants (e.g., "tes" instead of "test").

  • R-lessness: Omitting "r" in certain positions (similar to non-rhotic accents).

• Grammatical Features:

  • Habitual "Be": Indicates repeated or habitual actions (e.g., "He be working").

  • Zero-Copula: Omitting "is" or "are" in certain sentences (e.g., "She happy" instead of "She is happy").

• Lexical Features:

  • Unique Vocabulary: Words like "finna" (fixing to) and "bling" (jewelry).

• Example Sentence: "She be going to the store every day."

3. Given Dialect Data, Identify Phonological, Morphological, or Syntactic Features of a Dialect

• Approach:

  • Phonological: Analyze pronunciation patterns, such as vowel shifts or consonant omissions.

  • Morphological: Examine the use of prefixes, suffixes, or inflections unique to the dialect.

  • Syntactic: Look at sentence structure, word order, or grammatical constructions specific to the dialect.

• Example:

  • Data: "He be working every day."

  • Analysis: Presence of habitual "be" indicating repeated action (syntactic feature).

4. Briefly Recount the “Fourth Floor” Study of Rhoticity in New York City

• Study Overview:

  • Purpose: Investigated the pronunciation of "r" sounds among speakers in New York City.

  • Findings:

    • Variation in rhoticity (pronunciation of "r") among different social and ethnic groups.

    • Non-rhotic accents (dropping "r") were more prevalent in certain neighborhoods, such as the "Fourth Floor" area.

• Implications: Demonstrates how socio-economic and ethnic factors influence language features like rhoticity.

5. Identify Aspects of Your Own Speech and Discuss How They Reflect Your Upbringing and Identity

• Self-Analysis Steps:

  • Phonological: Identify any unique pronunciation patterns (e.g., dropping "r" sounds).

  • Morphological: Notice any distinctive use of verb forms or affixes.

  • Syntactic: Observe sentence structures that may differ from standard language use.

• Reflection Example: "I often use the habitual 'be' in sentences like 'I be studying,' which reflects my upbringing in a community where AAVE is prevalent and is part of my cultural identity."