Chapter 9: Democracy in America
Andrew Jackson's Rise and the Evolution of American Democracy
Andrew Jackson, a symbol of tenacity and controversy, significantly shaped American democracy in the early 19th century. His life, marked by duels and military achievements, reflected the evolving attitudes towards democracy and governance.
Democracy in the Early Republic
While today democracy is largely considered a positive attribute, many of the founders of the U.S. held reservations. They feared that too much direct influence from ordinary citizens would disrupt social order and the stability of the republic.
Concerns of the Elite
Figures like Alexander Hamilton and Elbridge Gerry expressed concerns about the "vices of democracy" and the dangers of excessive popular participation. Benjamin Rush worried about popular rebelliousness leading to a new form of despotism.
Democratic Impulses
Despite elite reservations, Americans demonstrated their democratic impulses through increased voter turnout, public demonstrations, partisan speeches, and direct engagement with elected leaders. The concept of the American republic as a democratic republic, where the people are sovereign at all times, gained traction.
The Role of Political Parties
Political parties adapted to the growing importance of public opinion, learning to listen to the voices of the masses. Andrew Jackson, despite holding an office resembling a king, came to symbolize the democratizing spirit of American politics.
The Missouri Crisis
The Missouri Crisis highlighted the growing sectional conflict between the North and South, particularly regarding slavery. This crisis exposed the tensions between states and their differing interests.
Sectional Conflict
Virginia initially wielded significant influence in the federal government, but the market revolution led to faster population growth in Northern states. This shift caused Northern leaders to worry about the disproportionate influence of Virginia and other Southern states.
Slavery and Political Power
Northerners feared that Southern states' defense of slavery would create a powerful congressional voting bloc. The North and South clashed over federal policy as Northern states gradually ended slavery, while Southern states became more dependent on enslaved labor.
The Tallmadge Amendment
In 1819, when Missouri applied for statehood, Congressman James Tallmadge proposed an amendment to prohibit the introduction of more enslaved people and to free children born to enslaved people at age twenty-five. The Tallmadge Amendment aimed to maintain the sectional balance of power, but met strong resistance from Southern politicians.
The Missouri Compromise of 1820
Proposed by Senator Jesse Thomas and promoted by Henry Clay, the Missouri Compromise of 1820 sought to resolve the crisis and prevent future disputes over slavery and statehood. The compromise included three parts:
Missouri was admitted as a slave state.
Maine was admitted as a free state, maintaining the balance between free and slave states.
The Louisiana Purchase territory was divided along the line of latitude, prohibiting slavery north of the line and permitting it south of the line.
Reactions to the Compromise
Despite resolving the immediate crisis, the Missouri Compromise underscored the sectional nature of American politics. Thomas Jefferson expressed alarm over the issue, fearing it could lead to disunion and civil war.
The Rise of Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson's career exemplified the opportunities and dangers of political life in the early republic. His humble beginnings, military achievements, and political career marked him as a significant figure in American democracy.
Early Life and Military Career
Born in 1767 on the border of North and South Carolina, Andrew Jackson grew up during the Revolutionary War. He joined an American militia unit at age thirteen and developed a deep hatred of Great Britain. After the war, he moved to Tennessee, where he worked as a lawyer and acquired land and enslaved laborers.
Military Accomplishments
Jackson gained fame as a general in the War of 1812. He won a decisive victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814 during the Creek War and defeated a British invasion force at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. These military successes boosted his popularity and political career.
The First Seminole War
In 1818, Jackson, as commander of the U.S. southern military district, invaded Spanish-owned Florida. Acting on vague orders, he aimed to break the resistance of the Seminole people, who protected runaway enslaved people and attacked American settlers. His actions led to the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, which gave Florida to the United States.
The Election of 1824
In 1824, Jackson competed for the presidency against John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay. Although Jackson won more popular votes, no candidate secured a majority in the Electoral College, throwing the election into the House of Representatives. Adams won the presidency with Clay's support, leading Jackson's supporters to cry "corrupt bargain."
The Election of 1828
In 1828, Jackson defeated Adams in a highly contested election. Jackson's broad appeal as a military hero and his image as a leader of ordinary white Americans from the South and West contributed to his victory.
The Nullification Crisis
The Nullification Crisis tested the balance of power between the federal government and the states. This crisis involved sectional disputes over national tax policy and defined Jackson's approach to governance.
The Tariff of Abominations
Southerners opposed the Tariff of 1828, which protected Northern manufacturing interests by raising prices on European products. They blamed the tariff for a wealth transfer, as it forced them to buy goods from the North at higher prices and provoked retaliatory tariffs from European countries.
John C. Calhoun and Nullification
Vice President John C. Calhoun, from South Carolina, secretly drafted the "South Carolina Exposition and Protest," arguing that states could nullify federal statutes they deemed unconstitutional. Calhoun asserted that the Union was a compact among the states, not the American people, and that states retained sovereignty.
Jackson's Response
President Jackson vehemently opposed nullification, viewing it as a personal betrayal and a challenge to his authority. He declared that "disunion, by armed force, is TREASON" and persuaded Congress to pass a Force Bill authorizing military action to enforce the tariffs.
Resolution of the Crisis
Faced with Jackson's threats, other Southern states declined to support South Carolina. A compromise bill, brokered by Henry Clay, gradually lowered federal tariff rates. South Carolina rescinded its nullification of the tariffs but nullified the Force Bill.
Legacy of the Crisis
The Nullification Crisis united the ideas of secession and states' rights. It also highlighted the immense political power and anxiety of enslavers regarding the future of slavery.
The Eaton Affair and the Politics of Sexuality
The Eaton Affair, or "Petticoat Affair," was a personal crisis during Jackson's first term that drove a wedge between him and Vice President Calhoun. It began as a disagreement among elite women in Washington, D.C., and eventually led to the disbanding of Jackson's cabinet.
Margaret Eaton and Social Exclusion
John Henry Eaton, Jackson's secretary of war, married Margaret O'Neale Timberlake, a recent widow with a controversial reputation. The wives of other cabinet members, led by Floride Calhoun, shunned Margaret Eaton, causing a social and political crisis.
Jackson's Indignation
Jackson was indignant because he had recently been through a similar scandal with his late wife, Rachel. He believed that attacks on Margaret Eaton were attacks on his authority.
Resolution
The scandal was resolved only with the resignation of four members of the cabinet, including Eaton's husband.
The Bank War
Andrew Jackson's most characteristic struggle as president was the "war" against the Bank of the United States. His actions reshaped the American financial system and intensified political divisions.
Opposition to the National Bank
Jackson and his supporters viewed the Bank of the United States as a dangerous institution that benefited wealthy private stockholders at the expense of the public. They blamed the bank for the Panic of 1819 and believed it corrupted politicians.
Jackson's Veto
In 1832, Congress voted to reauthorize the Bank of the United States, but Jackson vetoed the bill. He argued that the bank was unconstitutional and dangerous to the liberties of the people.
Removal of Federal Funds
In 1833, Jackson directed his cabinet to stop depositing federal funds in the Bank of the United States. Instead, the government conducted business with selected state banks, known as Jackson's "pet banks."
Consequences of the Bank War
Jackson's bank veto ignited fierce controversy. Supporters hailed him as a defender of the people against a monied aristocracy, while opponents accused him of acting like a dictator. The Bank War helped define the beliefs of Jackson's supporters and led to the formation of the Whig Party by his political enemies.
The Panic of 1837
The Panic of 1837, a severe economic depression, followed Jackson's victory over the Bank of the United States. This crisis tested the stability of the American economy and intensified political divisions.
Economic Boom and Bust
Between 1834 and 1836, high cotton prices, credit availability, and an influx of specie spurred an economic boom. However, speculation in western lands and poorly regulated lending practices created a real estate bubble.
Contributing Factors
Federal actions, such as increasing the number of banks receiving federal deposits and issuing the Specie Circular, worsened the situation. Banks became careless about their reserves of hard currency, and the economic bubbles began to burst in late 1836.
The Panic and Depression
Runs on banks began in New York in May 1837, leading to a general economic depression. Banks stopped redeeming their notes, and the total capital held by American banks dropped by 40 percent between 1839 and 1843.
Rise of the Whigs
The Whig Party emerged from the political coalition of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, opposing Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party. The disaster of the Panic of 1837 accelerated their rise.
Formation and Ideology
The Whigs formally organized as a party in 1834, uniting anti-Jackson leaders from different backgrounds. They adopted an anti-monarchical name and focused on winning seats in Congress.
The Election of 1840
In 1840, the Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison for president and John Tyler for vice president. Harrison, known as the "log cabin and hard cider" candidate, won the election but died after just thirty-one days in office.
The Tyler Administration
Vice President Tyler became president and adopted policies that aligned more with Andrew Jackson than with the Whig Party. His vetoes of charters for another Bank of the United States led to the resignation of his cabinet and his expulsion from the Whig Party.
Decline of the Whigs
The Whig Party struggled to unite around issues other than opposition to the Democrats and broke apart by 1856 over the issue of slavery.
Anti-Masons, Anti-Immigrants, and the Whig Coalition
The Whig coalition drew strength from earlier political movements, including the Anti-Masonic Party and nativist sentiments.
The Anti-Masonic Party
The Anti-Masonic Party formed in the 1820s to destroy the Freemasons, a secretive fraternal order. The disappearance and probable murder of William Morgan, who planned to publish an exposé of Masonry, fueled anti-Masonic sentiment.
Nativism and Anti-Immigrant Sentiment
Nativists opposed immigration, particularly Catholic immigration, fearing that immigrants would bring religious violence and be controlled by the Pope. They accused Catholic priests of controlling their parishioners and preying sexually on young women and feared that Catholicism would overrun and conquer the American political system.
Race and Jacksonian Democracy
Racial inequality exposed the limits of American democracy, undermining freedom for Black Americans even as it expanded for poor white people. State governments lowered property requirements for white men to vote but restricted voting rights for Black men.
Disenfranchisement of Black Voters
By 1839, almost all states explicitly limited Black voting rights. New constitutions and laws disenfranchised even wealthy Black men.
Racial Tensions and Riots
Racial and ethnic resentment contributed to a wave of riots in American cities during the 1830s. White rioters attacked Black churches, homes, and antislavery meeting houses.
Racial Stereotypes in Popular Culture
Racial tensions influenced popular culture. White actors performed in Blackface, perpetuating cruel stereotypes of enslaved people.
Abolitionism
Some whites joined free Black activists in protesting racial inequality, advocating for a more welcoming society for people of all races, religions, and classes.
The Jacksonian Era was marked by significant changes in American democracy. While it expanded political participation for some, it also revealed the limits of equality and inclusion in a changing society.