Aristotle's Politics Books 4 and 5
Shift from Idealized Justice to Practical Political Science
The focus of inquiry into political systems is the transition from general theoretical claims toward an implementable version of justice for ordinary people.
While Plato’s Republic is concerned with the ideal or perfectly just city, the investigation here centers on forms of government that are workable within actual cities involving actual people.
The best workable form of government is a special form of democracy—specifically, the most stable of the types identified.
A theoretical obsession with perfect justice is set aside to acknowledge that most populations are unable to manage aristocratic or monarchic organization.
The most stable democracy is not based solely on the principle of equality; rather, its stability is contingent upon the existence and presence of a robust middle class.
The Six Constitutions and Their Practical Suitability
There are total constitutions categorized into three pairs of proper forms and their corrupted counterparts:
Kingship and its corrupted form, Tyranny.
Aristocracy and its corrupted form, Oligarchy.
Democracy and its corrupted form, Democracy.
Kingship and Aristocracy are categorized as the best and most just forms of government, yet they are excluded from practical discussion for several reasons:
They require power to be invested in individuals with exceptional moral excellence and merit.
Good birth and merit are found in very few people.
It is rarely the case that a single person (Kingship) or a small group (Aristocracy) is qualified to rule so much better than others that they should be granted sole responsibility.
These forms lie beyond the reach of most actual cities, making perfect justice an unattainable goal for the human condition.
Tyranny is excluded from the discussion because it is the worst form of government and is suitable for almost no population in the civilized Western world.
It is theoretically possible for a community to be ruled by a dictator, but this is reserved for populations regarded as primitive.
Tyranny is appropriate only for a city or village whose population lacks virtue (baseness and ignobility) and yields no better ruler than a violent one.
In tyrannical systems, obedience is derived solely from fear and the threat of violence rather than mutuality, respect, reasoning, or deliberation.
Criteria for Suitable Government in Actual Cities
Sophisticated political science requires examining actual cases with people who have distinct preferences, limits, capacities, and histories.
The criterion for suitability is not perfect justice—defined as rule by the best (Aristocracy), obedience by the remainder, and political collaboration for the common interest—but rather stability.
Suitability is measured by what will work for a given population without introducing conflict or instability.
Political thinkers must identify:
The individuals most qualified to rule or have a political say within a specific population.
The individuals not yet morally developed enough for meaningful political participation.
The constitutional structure that best serves the relationship between these two groups to ensure stability.
The Functional Elements and Economic Classes of the City
A city is defined by different functional stations:
Farmers: Responsible for the production of food.
Mechanics: Occupied in arts and crafts essential for habitation.
Merchants: Occupied in buying and selling.
Laborers: Hired for various types of hard physical work.
The Military: The defense force protecting citizens from being slaughtered or enslaved by invaders.
The Wealthy: Those who serve the city with property by funding infrastructure, public works, and theatrical productions.
Politicians: Those who serve the public and undertake duties of public office.
While many functions can overlap (e.g., a person can be a soldier, farmer, and craftsman simultaneously), people cannot be both rich and poor.
The rich and poor are regarded as parts of the city in a special, irreducible sense because they are opposed elements.
The rich are generally a small minority, while the poor are a large majority. This dynamic determines the constitution:
Oligarchy: Power is given exclusively to the wealthy.
Democracy: Power is shared between the poor and wealthy, with the poor holding majority power.
Historical Development and the Rise of the Middle Class
In the ancestral period, cities were smaller and economic opportunities were restricted, leading to a sharp divide between the very rich and the very poor with no middle ground.
In the modern era, cities have grown larger and economic opportunities have multiplied, introducing a third element: the Middle Class.
The middle class forms the mean (the average) between the extremes of wealth and poverty.
For the purpose of discussing real-world political structures, the city is viewed as containing primary elements: the poor, the wealthy, and the middle class.
The Five Types of Democracy
All forms of democracy are shaped by the principle of equality, but they lie on a descending scale of how that equality is applied to male free persons (excluding women, children, slaves, and foreigners).
The First Type of Democracy
Follows the principle of equality most closely: the poor count no more than the rich, and neither is sovereign (carrying the final political say).
Typically found in small cities with a majority of farmers and laborers and a very small middle/wealthy class.
The populace is composed of individuals who must live by their work and enjoy no leisure.
Because they lack time and potentially the virtue for constant deliberation, meetings of the assembly are kept to a minimum.
The law is made supreme to compensate for the inability of the populace to rule daily. The law serves as a repository of political wisdom and a stabilizer in the absence of legislators.
The Second Type of Democracy
Offices are assigned based on a property qualification, though it is low or modest.
The principle of equality is restricted to those who own property and have something at stake in the city’s success.
This exclusion prevents those with excessive baseness or poverty from participating.
The law determines the qualification, but the participants have more leisure to attend assemblies and address the needs of the city as they arise. The law is slightly less domineering than in the first type.
The Third Type of Democracy
Restricts political office to citizens of unimpeachable or irreproachable descent (bloodlines).
Despite high birth, these individuals are still too busy with work and lack the leisure for constant political responsibility.
Consequently, the laws remain sovereign, addressing cases automatically as they arise.
The Fourth Type of Democracy
Extends eligibility to all those of free birth (everyone outside of slavery).
Occurs in larger, more modern cities.
Because the population includes those with greater hardship and potential ignobility, there is a risk of instability.
The rule of law must remain sovereign over the deliberations of the assembly because the diverse population is considered less reliable.
The Fifth Type of Democracy
Found in cities with large populations and considerable accumulated revenue.
All male free persons participate because the city provides state payment for attendance in assemblies and courts.
This system provides the poor with the leisure required for meaningful participation.
In this type, the mass of the poor becomes the sovereign power instead of the law.
Aristotle considers this dangerous and extreme, not because of hardship, but because of licentiousness (excessive liberty). It is highly vulnerable to the influence of demagogues.
The Threat of the Demagogue and Democratic Destruction
The demagogue is the greatest threat to a democracy, often captivating the imagination of the civic body to exercise personal sway.
The cycle of destruction follows a specific pattern:
The poor, influenced by a demagogue, begin to mistreat the wealthy.
The wealthy, possessing resources or the ability to hire mercenaries, initiate a revolution.
The wealthy prevail, transforming the democracy into an oligarchy or a tyranny.
Mistreatment of the wealthy turns them into revolutionaries.
Extreme democracy is most susceptible to this because the eligible free persons are least well-off, most ignorant, and most prone to destructive impulses.
The demagogue may eventually persuade the populace to grant him absolute power, turning the democracy into a tyranny.
The Mixed Constitution: The Ideal Practical Form
The most feasible constitution is the mixed constitution, which combines democracy with two specific elements: a property qualification and education.
This system relies on a large middle class, which is only possible in large cities with expanded economic opportunities.
Advantages of a Middle-Class Favoring Constitution:
It is most resilient against demagogues and factional disputes.
Where the middle class outweighs the rich and poor (either individually or combined), the constitution is likely to be permanent.
The rich and poor will not unite against the middle class because the middle class outnumbers them.
It prevents the binary conflict found in oligarchies (where the poor majority and wealthy minority are pitted against each other).
The middle class is wealthy enough to have education but not excessively wealthy; this education provides the virtue and discipline required to lead well.
This form of government is the best that can actually be put into practice in the real world with actual people, provided a large enough middle class exists.