PSY201
Introduction and History of Psychology:
1. Approaches to the study of psychology:
Structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalytic theory, gestalt movement, behaviorism, humanistic psychology, and cognitivism.
2. Levels of analysis in psychology:
Biological: brain systems, neurochemistry, and genetics
EX: neuroanatomy, animal research, brain imaging, neurotransmitters, hormones
Individual: individual differences, perception and cognition, and behavior
EX: personality, gender, developmental age, self-concept, thinking, decision-making, language, memory, seeing, hearing
Social: interpersonal behavior, social cognition
EX: groups, relationships, persuasion, influence, workplace, attitudes, stereotypes, perceptions
Cultural: thoughts, actions, behaviors–in different societies and cultural groups
EX: norms, beliefs, values, symbols, ethnicity
3. Origin of Psychological science –
Structuralism: identify basic parts, or structures, of the conscious mind
Functionalism: describe how the conscious mind aids adaptation to an environment
Gestalt: study subjective perceptions as a unified whole
Humanistic Psychology: investigate how people become happier and more fulfilled; focus on the basic goodness of people
Behaviorism: describe behavior in response to environmental stimuli
Cognitive Psychology: explores internal mental processes that influence behavior. The study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, memory, and decision-making
Research Methods:
4. Goals of science: Behavior–to describe, to explain, to predict, and to control/improve. Brain–structure, function, and regulation. What, when, and why?
5. Cause and effect: causation does not equal correlation
6. Research cycle –
hypothesis: prediction based on the theory
theory: an explanation based on observations
7. Types of studies –
experimental: investigate what causes an outcome. Involves manipulating conscious–two variables: manipulate one (independent variable) and measure the other (dependent variable)
correlational: test the relationship between factors. describes and
predicts how variables are naturally related in the real world,
without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign
causation between them
descriptive: describe what is occurring. Observational studies: participant observation, naturalist observation, longitudinal self-reports, and case studies.
advantages/disadvantages: ✓
differences: ✓
8. Designing an Experiment-
steps: population→random sample or convenience sample→random sample→ control and experiment
variables: confounding variables: variables other than the independent variable can affect the variable (the third variable problem)
9. data collection/measurement methods: behavioral & physiological
observing: observational techniques and case studies; data must be clearly defined and systematically collected
Self-report: surveys, questionnaires, and interviews. Data may be biased by respondents
Response performance: reaction time, response accuracy, stimulus judgments
Physiological: measuring body or brain activity EX: polygraphs, EEG & ERP, PET, fMRI, TMS
Animal models: useful simple models of behavior and genetics
10. Properties of good data; kinds of errors
Validity: the extent to which the data collected addresses the question or hypothesis, can be affected by confounds and biases
Reliability: the extent to which the data is consistent and does not change with time or measure
Accuracy: the extent to which the data is free of error
Systematic error: differs across measurements
Random error: error is constant across measurements
11. statistical methods:
descriptive: mean, mode, median, range, standard deviation
inferential statistics: used to determine whether differences exist in the populations from which samples were drawn
12. central tendency:
Mean: average score
Median: center score
Mode: most frequent score
13. variability:
range: highest score - lowest score
standard deviation: measures the difference between each score and the mean score
14. correlation coefficient: measures the strength and direction of the correlation between 2 variables
15. confounding variables and controls ✓
16. bias –
subject: random sample and random assignment
experimenter: double-blind
selection: sample size and population
17. placebo effect: an improvement in physical or mental health following treatment with a placebo—that is, with a drug or treatment that has no active component for the disorder being treated
Brain—Organization of the nervous system:
18. Organization of the nervous system -
Central NS: brain and spinal cord
Peripheral NS: connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body through two subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
Autonomic NS: acts on visceral muscles (ex: heart, arteries, gastrointestinal tract, and glands including salivary and sweat)
EX: sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)
Dilates pupils
Relxas lungs
accelerates/strengthens the heartbeat
Inhibit stomach activity
Contracts blood vessels
parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest)
contracts pupils
constricts lungs
slows the heartbeat
stimulates stomach activity
dilates blood vessels
Somatic NS: acts on skeletal muscles (the muscles attached to the bone) – sensory and motor components
19. Cerebral Lobes:
Occipital: vision
Temporal: hearing and memory
Parietal: touch, spatial relations
Frontal: thought, planning movement
20.
cerebral cortex: important in perception, language, memory, planning, intellectual and artistic function, social responsibility, emotions, etc.
gray matter: cell bodies, dendrites, synapses
white matter: myelinated axons
21. Features of cortical organization:
functional specialization: different parts of the cortex serve different functions
topographic organization: sensory and motor areas contain a map of the rector surface or muscles (think of the weird image)
contra-lateral connections: the right side of the cortex is connected to the left side of the body and vice versa
asymmetry of higher functions: hemispheric speciation: being right-handed but better at drawing the figure with the right hand or lateralization: the left hemisphere is more important for language, Math & Logic skills and the right hemisphere is more important for spatial abilities, Face recognition & Visual imager
22. primary sensory areas: receive input from sensory surface
primary motor area: sends axons down to motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord
association areas: regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have a specific sensory or motor function (ex: prefrontal association area)
frontal areas: frontal lobe is home to areas that manage thinking, emotions, personality, judgment, self-control, muscle control and movements, memory storage and more
23. features of topographic maps: maps are distorted– the amount of cortex devoted to each part of the receptor surface or muscles does not correspond to the size of the body part. Maps are plastic--eg, training as a pianist reorganizes both the auditory and finger
representations in people
cortical magnification factor
24. Corpus Callosum: the massive bundle of axons that connects the two brain hemispheres together so they can communicate with each other
25. Split brain patients: class and lab materials ✓
Brain—Neural Function & Communication
26.
neurons: where the action is! Building blocks of behavior – a billion to a trillion cells
glia: the support cells. Form the myelin sheaths, provide nutrients, and oxygen, support neurons, and remove dead cells and pathogens. Three times the number of neurons and thoroughly underappreciated so far
myelin sheaths: an insulating layer, or sheath that forms around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord, allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells
27. parts of a neuron:
cell body: (soma) keeps the cell alive and integrates signals
dendrites: receives information
axon: transmits signals (carries signals out)
synapse: at the end of the axon – where neurons make contact
terminal button: nodules at the ends of axons; contain synaptic vesicles; release chemical signals into the synaptic cleft
synaptic cleft: the space in between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another and is where the electrical signal is translated to a chemical signal that can be perceived by the next neuron.
28. synaptic vesicles: found inside the axon’s or presynaptic neuron’s terminal and contain neurotransmitters that diffuse to the synaptic cleft and bind to ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane
neurotransmitters: chemical substances that transmit signals from one neuron to another
examples of NTs and their actions:
Acetylcholine: motor control over muscles, learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming
Norepinephrine: arousal, vigilance, and attention
Serotonin: emotional states and impulsiveness, dreaming
Dopamine: reward and motivation, motor control over voluntary movement
GABA: inhibition of action potentials, anxiety reduction
Glutamate: enhancement of action potentials, learning, and memory
Endorphins: pain reduction, and reward
29. reflex circuit: pain withdrawal reflex. Built-in response patterns are executed automatically. Reflex works through the transmission of electrical signals via sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons
sensory neurons: the nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment EX: touching a hot surface and moving your hand
interneurons: they connect the spinal motor and sensory neurons
motor neurons: cells in the brain and spinal cord that allow us to move, speak, swallow, and breathe by sending commands from the brain to the muscles that carry out these functions
30. Action potentials –how they work
Stereotypical electrical of neural activation – The Action Potential is an ALL-OR-NONE rapid reversal of membrane potential.
- inside becomes positive then quickly returns to normal (-70mV)
- Threshold potential for firing is usually around -55mV
31. membrane potential: charge across the membrane
Protein gates and pumps embedded in cell membrane control the movement of ions (charged molecules) such that
Sodium-Potassium Pump places more Na+ outside the axon & more K+ inside the axon at rest. - selective permeability
resting membrane potential: the ratio of negative to positive ions is greater inside the neuron than outside -70 mV
threshold membrane potential: Membrane reaches -55 mV. Sodium Channels open to let Na+ molecules through. Na+ ions rush in until +50 mV is reached.
32. ion channels – contribution to action potential and post-synaptic potential
33. pre-synaptic, post-synaptic neurons- properties of specialized structures (components) responsible for synaptic transmission ✓
34.
synaptic transmis
excitatory and inhibitory post synaptic potentials (EPSPs & IPSPs): Which channel opens on
receptor binding. Depends on which NT Neurotransmitters stimulate specific receptors to cause depolarization (EPSPs)
or hyperpolarization (IPSPs)
35. Neural integration- spatial and temporal
summation; firing rates
36. neurotransmitters – different in different types of circuits;
main neurotransmitters & their functions:
Acetylcholine: motor control over muscles, learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming
Norepinephrine: arousal, vigilance, and attention
Serotonin: emotional states and impulsiveness, dreaming
Dopamine: reward and motivation, motor control over voluntary movement
GABA: inhibition of action potentials, anxiety reduction
Glutamate: enhancement of action potentials, learning, and memory
Endorphins: pain reduction, and reward
37. events ending neurotransmission or
neurotransmitter influence:
Reuptake: to pre-synaptic terminal button. The neurotransmitter is reabsorbed into the presynaptic terminal buttons.
Diffusion in synaptic space
Enzyme deactivation: Enzyme destroys the neurotransmitter.
Autoreception: Signal to the presynaptic neuron to stop
releasing the neurotransmitter. Binding signals
the pre-synaptic axon to stop
releasing neurotransmitter
Deactivation: enzymes deactivate neurotransmitters
38.
Neuromodulators: alter how neurons exchange messages. Change the conditions for neural firing.
Agonists:
Increasing production of neurotransmitters in presynaptic neuron. Blocking reuptake receptors on presynaptic cell
selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) block the reuptake of serotonin, increasing the available amount
Mimicking the action of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell
Heroin mimics naturally-occurring endorphins, and binds to the endorphin receptors (activating them)
Antagonists:
Decreasing production of neurotransmitters in presynaptic neuron
Facilitating destruction or breakdown of neurotransmitter
Blocking the postsynaptic receptors, preventing the neurotransmitter
from activating them
example drugs: alcohol, cocaine, mushrooms, weed, caffeine
39. Plasticity: a property of the brain that allows it to
change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury
structural plasticity: the brain's ability to move functions from a damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas
functional plasticity: the brain's ability to actually change its physical structure as a result of learning
40. Consequences of neural and synaptic plasticity w/ examples- development, effects of practice/injury.
Developmental Plasticity:
Brain forms and strengthens synaptic connections during early life (e.g., language acquisition in children).
Sensitive periods when the brain is highly receptive to environmental stimuli (e.g., visual and language development).
Practice and Learning:
Repeated practice strengthens synapses (Long-Term Potentiation), improving memory and skills (e.g., musicians’ enhanced motor and auditory processing).
Skill acquisition leads to structural brain changes (e.g., larger hippocampus in taxi drivers).
Recovery from Injury:
Brain reorganizes itself after injury (functional plasticity) to compensate for lost functions (e.g., stroke recovery).
Synaptic reorganization can occur, such as after limb amputation, where brain areas reassigned functions.
Neural Plasticity and Aging:
Neural plasticity declines with age but can be maintained or enhanced through learning and mental exercises (e.g., cognitive benefits from learning new skills in older adults).