Sex, Gender, and Sexuality - Chapter 10 Notes

Chapter Introduction

The 1996 Olympics in Atlanta allowed eight athletes with XY sex chromosomes to compete with female competitors.
The chapter explores the similarities and differences between sex and gender and how biology influences sexual expression.
The chapter questions whether the separation of men's and women's sports in the Olympics is due to biological differences, gender differences, or both.
The chapter references the case of Caster Semenya, a South African athlete whose win in the women's 800-meter world championship led to questions about her legitimacy as a female athlete due to suspicions about her sex assigned at birth.

Distinguishing Biological Sex

Determining biological sex is not as simple as DNA or hormonal testing and a physical examination.
Both sexes produce testosterone, and different labs have different testing methods.
The International Olympic Committee's criteria for sex-specific events don't aim to define biological sex or gender categories but instead to identify when an athlete is ineligible to participate in the female category due to hormonal characteristics.
During the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, eight female athletes with XY chromosomes were confirmed as eligible to compete as women.
No male athletes have undergone similar testing to date.

Chapter Overview

The chapter will discuss the differences between sex and gender, gender identity, and sexuality.
It will also explore the nature of defining these terms and how they are used in psychology.
The chapter will investigate research on discrimination, marriage, parenting styles, sex education, and more over the last 40 years.

Sex and Gender

Sex and gender are often used interchangeably, but psychologists, medical professionals, and social scientists view them as conceptually distinct.

Sex

Sex denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females, mainly reproductive characteristics.
In humans, sex is determined by sex chromosomes: females have an XX chromosome pair, while males have an XY chromosome pair.
Sex is typically assigned at birth based on the appearance of external sex organs, referred to as "assigned female at birth" or "assigned male at birth."
Advancements in technology have improved ultrasound accuracy of sex determination in utero around 20 weeks gestation or via a blood test around 12 weeks if parents choose.

Intersex

Intersex describes individuals with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't fit typical definitions of male or female.
A 2021 study found that up to $2\%$ of the population may have chromosomal abnormalities that require additional consideration.
Individuals with intersex variations may have physical, hormonal, or genetic differences, discovered in utero, after birth, or after puberty.

Gender

Gender is a social construct based on identity, self-presentation, behavior, and interaction with others.
Psychologists view gender as learned behavior and a culturally produced identity.
Gender is a category based on societal notions of how people present themselves and act.

Historical Context

The terms sex and gender were not always differentiated in English until the 1950s.
Psychologists and professionals working with intersex and transgender people formally distinguished between sex and gender.
Gender is rooted in social institutions and results in patterns that structure the relationship between women and men.
In a 1994 briefing, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia defined gender as the cultural or attitudinal characteristics distinctive to the sexes, as feminine is to female and masculine is to male.

Non-Correspondence and Recognition

A person's assigned sex does not always correspond with their gender.
Many states recognize the uniqueness of gender identity and have adjusted laws on birth certificates and drivers licenses.
Seventeen states and Washington, DC, offer an option for a third gender category or an X marker on birth certificates.

Cultural Variations

Sex categories remain relatively constant across cultures, while gender characteristics vary greatly.
Examples include dress customs and attitudes towards gender and sex shift over time.
Social media platforms now facilitate sharing personal anecdotes and acknowledgments of sexual and gender identity, which were previously considered taboo.

Gender Binary

The dichotomous view of gender classifies sex and gender into two distinct, opposite forms (masculine and feminine) known as the gender binary.
In many cultures, gender is viewed as a spectrum, a perspective also shared by modern social researchers and biologists.
The gender spectrum denotes gender as a continuum that includes male and female without establishing them as absolutes or polar opposites.

LGBTQIA+

Each person has a unique experience with their sexuality, sexual development, and gender development.
The acronym LGBTQIA+ stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, intersex, and asexual.

Two-Spirit and Third Gender

The term "two-spirit" has been used by some anthropologists to refer to individuals who dressed and lived as a different gender from their sex among certain Native American peoples.
Samoan culture accepts fa'afafine, which translates to "the way of the woman," describing individuals assigned male at birth who embody masculinity and femininity.
Fa'afafines are considered an important part of Samoan culture and may be mislabeled as gay due to their varied sexual lives.
In the Dominican Republic, Turkey, and New Guinea, the term Guevedoces describes children with intersexuality or pseudohermaphroditism who are born female but develop male genitalia around puberty.

Discussions Across Generations

Baby Boomers reported a lack of terminology to describe their gender and sexuality as children and adolescents.
Millennials had the vocabulary to describe gender and sexuality but still experience challenges in naming and expressing their identity.
Gen Zers openly discuss topics such as mental health, infertility, sexuality, and gender identity.
A 2023 study found that $40\%$ of Gen Zers would discuss sexism in the workplace, and over $20\%$ would seek other employment if their employer did not engage in current social issues.

Gender Norms

Gender norms are behaviors or attributes that society assigns to a particular sex, changing across cultures and history.
In U.S. culture, masculine norms are associated with strength and aggression, while feminine norms are associated with passivity and nurturance.
Children learn gender roles through play, parenting styles, and the influence of friends and family.
Studies in the 1980s and 1990s found children were more likely to play with gender-appropriate toys due to parental feedback.
A 1984 study found children were more negative toward those who violated gender norms.
Parental values influence a child's adherence to gender expectations, with traditional homes encouraging girls to internalize value in household chores and childcare.
Some parents are moving toward gender-neutral parenting styles, though research on long-term outcomes is mixed.
UNICEF recommends nurturing and caring for children equally, regardless of gender.

Gender Identity and Gender Expression

Gender identity is a person's deeply held internal perception of their gender.
Gender expression is how a person presents themselves externally.
Gender identity and expression are influenced by cultural understandings of gender norms but do not necessarily have to align.

Cisgender and Transgender

Cisgender refers to people whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth.
Transgender refers to people whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.
A trans man is assigned female at birth but identifies as a man, while a trans woman is assigned male at birth but identifies as a woman.
It is estimated that 1.6 million people in the United States are transgender.

Transitioning

Transitioning involves social, legal, and/or medical aspects to align with gender identity.
Social transition may involve gender expression, names, pronouns, and relationships.
Legal transition includes changing gender and legal names on official documents.
Medical transition involves hormone therapy or surgery.
Hormone therapy changes physical characteristics and requires a trained physician.
Gender-affirming surgery includes surgical options for chest, breasts, face, and reproductive organs.
Clothing is a form of self-expression and not necessarily an expression for or against one’s assigned gender.
Drag kings are female performers who exaggerate male behaviors, and drag queens are male performers who exaggerate female behaviors.

Gender-Inclusive Language

Using gender-inclusive language recognizes and shows acceptance for trans people.
English has traditionally been binary with male (he/him/his) and female (she/her/hers) pronouns.
The pronoun "they" is more inclusive and has been endorsed by the APA as a singular, third-person pronoun.
They/them pronouns should be used to reference those who do not identify as male or female.

Gender Identity, Expression, and Sexual Orientation

Gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation are different aspects of our core identity.

Gender Fluidity, Nonbinary, and Genderqueer

Gender fluidity is when a person's gender identity or expression changes over time.
Gender nonbinary, gender nonconforming, and genderqueer refer to people whose gender identity does not fit traditional male or female categories.

Origins of Gender Identities

There is no single explanation for why people have particular gender identities.
Transgender expressions have occurred in all societies with varying degrees of acceptance.
Prior to 1973, the APA defined homosexuality as an abnormal disorder but now sees it as a normal aspect of human sexuality.
The DSM-5 replaced gender identity disorder with gender dysphoria to reduce stigma while protecting patient access to care.

Gender Dysphoria

Gender dysphoria refers to psychological distress resulting from incongruence between one's sex assigned at birth and gender identity.
The DSM-5-TR specifies that this incongruence must cause clinically significant distress or impairment to daily functioning and persist for at least 6 months.
Treatment includes transitioning, hormone therapy, gender affirmation surgery, and psychotherapy.
According to the DSM-5-TR, less than $0.05\%$ of the population experiences gender dysphoria.
A recent study found that $73\%$ of transgender individuals experience clinically significant anxiety, $72\%$ have experienced clinically significant depression, and over $45\%$ have had suicidal thoughts.

Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice and discrimination toward trans and nonbinary people are social problems.
More than half of LGBTQIA+ adults and $70\%$ of transgender people report experiencing discrimination from health care professionals.
The NCAVP recorded an average of nearly two homicides of LGBTQIA+ people each week during 2019, of which $64\%$ were Black trans women.

Sexism

Gender stereotypes form the basis of sexism, which refers to prejudiced beliefs that value one sex over another.
Sexism varies in severity; in parts of the world where women are greatly undervalued, girls may not have the same access to nutrition, health care, and education as boys.

Sexuality

Each society and generation interprets sexuality and sexual activity in different ways.
Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behavior, but in recent years, peers and the media have emerged as two of the strongest influences, particularly among U.S. teens.

Sexual Orientation

A person's sexuality is their capacity to experience sexual feelings and attraction.
A person's sexual orientation is typically defined by their physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction or lack thereof.
Sexual attraction is not necessarily based on gender identity or expression, but people may feel attracted to certain genders.

Categories of Sexual Orientation

Heterosexuality: attraction to individuals of a different sex
Homosexuality: attraction to individuals of the same sex
Bisexuality: attraction to individuals of either sex
Asexuality: lack of sexual attraction and arousal
Pansexuality: attraction that does not regard gender and is not limited by sex, gender identity, or gender expression
Omnisexuality: attraction that acknowledges gender and is not limited by sex, gender identity, or gender expression

Aromantic and Graysexual

Aromantic: person does not experience romantic attraction.
Graysexual or grayromantic: Some terms have been developed to address this, but their usage is a personal choice.

Heteronormativity

Heteronormativity is the belief or assumption that heterosexuality is the default, preferred, or normal mode of sexual orientation.
It promotes a society in which sexual and marital relations, relationships, and families are presented as most fitting between people of opposite assigned sexes.
Heterosexual and homosexual people may be referred to informally as straight and gay/lesbian, respectively.
Individuals may also choose to describe themselves as queer, an umbrella term for nonheterosexual orientations and/or noncisgender identities.

Awareness of Sexual Orientation

People are usually aware of their sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence.
Attraction and sexual activity are different; people who are not sexually active can be aware of their attraction.
Coming out can involve risks that differ from one individual to another.

Kinsey Scale

Alfred Kinsey conceptualized sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight.
He created a six-point rating scale that ranges from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual.

Homosocial

Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick coined the term homosocial to describe nonsexual same-sex relations.
Women freely express homosocial feelings, while American men often refrain from these expressions since they violate heteronormative expectations.

Sexual Fluidity

Sexual fluidity is a change in sexual orientation and is common in younger people and those who identify as part of the LGBTQIA+ community.
It may include changes in attraction, identity labels, and/or sexual behavior.

Conversion Therapy

Conversion therapy was established to realign an individual's sexual orientation from nonheterosexual to heterosexual.
This practice has been discredited by the scientific community and found harmful to the individual's mental health.
Dr. Robert Spitzer, the author of one of the most widely cited examples of successful conversion therapy, apologized for his mistakes and recanted his paper in a public letter.