Migration Notes: Internal and International Migration — Key Concepts, Theories, and Case Studies

Migration: Definition

Migration is the movement of people across a specified boundary – national or international – to establish a new permanent place of residence.
The United Nations defines permanent as a change of residence lasting more than one year.
Key implications:
- Movement can be within a country (internal) or between countries (international).
- It involves longer-term or permanent relocation rather than short-term travel.

Internal Migration

Internal migration refers to people who move within the frontiers of one country.
Rural–urban migration: movement from countryside to towns and cities.
Urban–rural migration: movement from urban areas back to rural areas; linked to counter-urbanisation.
Inter-urban migration: movement between different urban areas.
Intra-urban migration: movement within the same urban area.
Step migration: rural migrant heads initially to a familiar small town, then moves to a larger urban settlement; over time may take several steps up the urban hierarchy.
Migrability: likelihood of an individual migrating from one area to another; reflects socio-economic status, physical and psychological makeup, etc.
Mobility: describes the ability to move (e.g., access to transport).
Economic migration (internal): movement within a country to benefit from opportunities, sometimes to escape poverty or improve children’s prospects; may also involve job security and living standards.
Economic migration (inter- or intra-national): moving to another country to seek greater economic opportunities in the receiving country is often termed economic migration at the international level, but the internal version shares motives of improved earnings and security.
Related concepts:
- Montserrat example as a case of natural disaster affecting mobility and access.
- Mexico–USA example as voluntary economic migration illustrating cross-border flows.

Counter-urbanisation and Related Concepts

Counter-urbanisation: population decentralisation as people move from large urban areas to smaller urban settlements and rural areas.
Counterstream: a reverse flow of migrants; for every migration stream, a counterstream (lower volume) often results as some migrants return home.
Depopulation: absolute decline in the population of an area, frequently caused by out-migration.
Core–periphery concept:
- Core: region of concentrated economic development, advanced infrastructure, high income, low unemployment.
- Periphery: region with low or declining development, low incomes, high unemployment, poor infrastructure, with selective outmigration.
Intervening obstacles: barriers to migration between origin and destination (e.g., cost, legal barriers, distance).
Remittances: money sent home to families by migrants working elsewhere.
Family life cycle: stages families with children pass through (pre-child, family building, dispersal, post-child), with corresponding housing needs and choices.

Population Structure and Spatial Scales

Population structure: the composition of a population, with key dimensions being age and sex.
Link between rural-urban migration and urbanisation: rural exodus fuels city growth and the urbanisation of LEDCs.
Macro-level: large-scale factors (national, regional).
Meso-level: intermediate-scale factors (origin/destination specifics, city-region dynamics).
Micro-level: small-scale factors (household and individual circumstances).

Macro-, Meso-, and Micro- Levels of Analysis

Macro-level: national development, core–periphery dynamics, broad economic structures.
Meso-level: origin/destination characteristics, local labour markets, and urban networks.
Micro-level: family decisions, housing needs, and individual life cycles.

Remittances and Data Resource

Remittances are money sent back to home communities by migrants.
See up-to-date remittance figures at: https://migrationdataportal.org/themes/remittances

International Migration

International migration refers to migrants who cross international boundaries.
Voluntary migration: free choice about whether to move.
Forced migration: little or no choice; includes refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs).
Source area: origin region of migrants.
Receiving area: destination region.
Immigration: permanent movement into a country from other countries.
Emigration: permanent movement out of a country to other countries.
In-migration: regional movement within a country toward a destination.
Out-migration: regional movement within a country away from a destination.
Net migration: entering migrants minus leaving migrants; can be positive or negative.
Migration stream: migrants sharing a common origin and destination.
Asylum seekers: people who claim refugee status and undergo legal procedures to determine eligibility.
Refugee: a person forced to leave home due to well-founded fear of persecution (race, religion, social group, political opinion) or other threats (war, disaster).
Internally displaced person (IDP): forced to leave home but remains within the same country.
Mass migration: migration of a large group from one region to another.
Diaspora: dispersal of a people from their original homeland.
Multiplier effect: increased money supply in a region leading to further development as money circulates.
Ethnicity: identification with a particular ethnic group.

Findings on Assimilation and Labour Dynamics

Racial assimilation: gradual integration into the mainstream community across economic, social, and political strands.
Ethnic villages: communities with concentrated ethnic identity reflected in shops, worship, schools, cinemas, newspapers, and social facilities.
Labour migration: migration primarily for employment.
Underemployment: working less than desired or needed to earn a reasonable living.
Guest worker: foreign workers allowed to work temporarily (e.g., farm laborers).
Maquiladoras: assembly plants in Mexico near the US border; foreign inputs are processed and finished products returned.
Assimilation: becoming integrated into mainstream society.
Total fertility rate: the average number of children a woman would have over her reproductive lifetime.
Ethnography: a case study focused on cultural patterns within a group.
Time–space distanciation: social systems stretched across space and time.
Migrant culture: attitudes and values in relation to migration.
Activity prompt: jot down reasons for migration to and from certain regions on the map.

Theories of Migration

Lee’s Migration Model (1966): four factors influencing the decision to migrate:
- Characteristics of origin
- Characteristics of destination
- Intervening obstacles between origin and destination
- Personal factors
Todaro model: cost–benefit analysis of migration; individuals may endure short-term hardship for longer-term gains.
Stark’s New Economics of Migration: focuses on household decision-making; the family acts collectively to spread costs and benefits.
Systems model: migrants follow a flow-chart or system to decide if migration is optimal.
Marxist theory: migration arises under capitalism; cheap labor from LEDCs is used by MEDCs; local workers’ bargaining power is affected.
Gender dynamics in migration:
- Traditionally men migrate for work and remit earnings.
- Women now migrate in larger numbers (e.g., female nurses from the Philippines to the UK) and may attain higher status in destination societies.

Additional Theoretical and Analytical Points

Age and migration: younger people are more likely to migrate; pensioners may migrate for retirement.
Distance and gravity effects: longer distances require stronger pull factors for migration.
Gravity Model of Migration: analogous to Newton’s law of gravity; interaction between two places rises with the product of their populations and falls with distance.
- Common form: $M{ij} \propto \frac{Pi Pj}{d{ij}^\alpha}$
- In the simplest form, using exponent 2: $M{ij} \propto \frac{Pi Pj}{d{ij}^2}$
The Gravity Model emphasizes that larger populations and shorter distances increase migration flows.

Data and Methodology

Three main sources of migration data:
- Population censuses
- Population registers
- Social surveys

Internal Migration: Core Insights (Summaries)

Direction: rural-to-urban and peripheral-to-core movements are most prevalent.
Rural-to-rural migration exists in developing countries due to employment, family, and marriage.
Urban–urban movements include step migration (urban hierarchy), along with other motivations such as jobs and education.
Three scales of analysis (macro, meso, micro) shape migration decisions.
Remittances influence migration decisions; money flows can also go from towns back to villages for education or employment.
The link between migration and development is complex; out-migration impacts local agriculture and regional demographics.
In some contexts, governments may influence internal migration to alter ethnic balance.
Age- and gender-selective migration can significantly affect origin and destination regions.
Urban contact and family life cycle dynamics are crucial in migration decisions.
Counterurbanisation became evident in the USA in the 1970s and spread to western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Japan.

International Migration: Key Insights

International migration is a major global issue with impacts on both donor and receiving nations.
Distinguish between independent (voluntary) and dependent (dependent on others) migrations.
Global indicators in the modern era:
- About one in 35 people worldwide live outside their birth country (~175 million people).
- Globalisation and advances in transport/communication have increased potential mobility and reduced costs.
Displaced populations are not always international refugees; many are internally displaced.
Global displacement statistics (illustrative figures):
- Displaced people in 2009: $4.2 imes 10^7$ (largest in Africa and the Asia–Pacific region).
Remittances reached about $397 imes 10^9$ USD in 2008, with about $305 imes 10^9$ USD going to developing countries and around 190 million migrants involved (≈ 3% of the world population).
Remittances are often cited as a highly effective development financing channel for the developing world.
Social assimilation often follows economic assimilation, but the pace depends on host-society socio-political maturity and similarity to the immigrant community.
Migration has shaped global cultural maps and has significant political implications within and between countries.
London is cited as a highly cosmopolitan/multi-racial city; ethnic villages as a concept describe the concentration of ethnic groups within urban spaces.

Mexico to USA Case Study: International Migration

Migration from Mexico to the USA has been a major global stream for around four decades, primarily labor-based.
Early 20th century: US allowed recruitment of Mexican workers as guest workers.
By the early 1980s, limited illegal migration emerged due to high Mexican population growth and an economic crisis in Mexico.
Employment patterns: Mexican migrants have largely found work in agriculture, construction, manufacturing, and low-paid service jobs.
Legislative watershed: Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986 addressed illegal immigration pressures.
Late 1990s onward: labour migration remained high even as Mexico’s economy improved.
By 2006: approximately 12 million Mexican-born people living in the United States (about 11% of people born in Mexico).
Geographical concentrations: strongest in the four border states (California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas), especially California and Texas.
Assimilation: Mexican-origin populations in the US have undergone assimilation processes over time.
Labour supply pressures for emigration from Mexico peaked in the late 1990s and are expected to ease in coming years.
The 2008–2009 global economic crisis amplified unemployment in the US (≈ 10%), affecting migration dynamics.
Cultural impact: migrant communities have developed distinct cultures within the US.
Suggested resources for further study and datasets: Forced Migration Online, Journal of Refugee Studies, IOM, Migration Policy Institute, and other linked sources.

Case Study References and Further Resources

Suggested websites for remittance data and migration statistics:
- Forced Migration Online: http://www.forcedmigration.org
- Journal of Refugee Studies: http://www.jrs.oxfordjournals.org
- International Organisation for Migration: http://www.iom.int
- Stalker’s Guide to International Migration: http://pstalker.com/migration
- Migration Policy Institute: http://www.migrationinformation.org
- Other regional/national sources and policy think tanks listed in the material

Mathematical and Conceptual References (Quick Recap)

Gravity Model of Migration (conceptual):
- Two places with larger populations and shorter distance are more connected by migration flows.
- Common form: $M{ij} \propto \frac{Pi Pj}{d{ij}^2}$ where
- $M_{ij}$ = predicted migrant flow from origin i to destination j
- $Pi, Pj$ = populations of origin and destination
- $d_{ij}$ = distance between i and j
- More general form may use $M{ij} = k \frac{Pi Pj}{d{ij}^\alpha}$ with exponent \alpha > 0 and constant $k$ .
One in 35 people globally live outside their birth country: $\frac{1}{35} \, (\approx 0.0286)$ .
Displaced people (example figure): $4.2 imes 10^7$ in 2009.
Global remittances (example figure): $397 imes 10^9\$ (USD) in 2008;$ 305 imes 10^9\$ went to developing countries.
Case-specific dates and figures (examples):
- 1958: Peterson’s migratory types (primitive, forced, impelled, free, mass).
- 1966: Lee’s origin–destinations–intervening obstacles–personal factors model.
- 1986: IRCA immigration reform in the USA.
- 2006: ~12 million Mexican-born in the USA; concentration along the U.S.–Mexico border.
- 2009: approximately 42 million displaced globally (Africa, Asia–Pacific regions most affected).
- 2008–2009: US unemployment rose to about 10% (global context affecting migration).