Overview

• 1830: France invaded Algeria, driving Algerians off the best farmland to create a source of food, cash crops, and a market for manufactured goods 

  • Resistance continued until the 1870s

• 1880: 300k European immigrants, Colons, who became known as pieds noirs

  • Came to have strong influence in politics

• 1881: Algeria became part of metropolitan France

  • Nationalism took root after WWI - some sought independence, other wanted more rights but to remain connected with France

  • Colons rejected any reforms that would give more rights to Muslim Algerians, and rejected the French gov’t Violette Plan in 1939

• WWII: Algeria was controlled by a Vichy Admin, until it joined the Free French after an Allied invasion (1942)

• Experiences of war, new attitudes toward colonialism, and French reluctance to make changes → more assertive nationalism

  • French gov’t was determined to maintain control

  • Significance political, social, and economic inequality between 1 million colons and 9 million Muslims in Algeria

• First violent clash involving nationalists at Sétif (Setif Massacre) in May 1945 → harsh response from French authorities

• Algerian nationalists formed the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) which then committed to the armed struggle to liberate Algeria

• Algerian War began when FLN guerrillas attacked targets in Algeria on November 1st, 1954

Main long-term causes of the war

The origins of the war: the French Conquest of Algeria

• 19th century: Algeria was part of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire, which extended over the Middle East and North Africa

  • Turkish control of its N. African provinces was nominal - Turkish ruler, dey, had little direct control from Istanbul

  • This authority was confined mainly to coastal regions, while Berber and Arab communities in the south were virtually independent

  • Frequent raids and war between these nomadic and semi-nomadic communities, they had certain things in common - Arabic language, Islamic religion, some shared cultural practices

• Algeria exported grain + olive oil to France, but disputes over payment → strained relationships

  • Barbary pirates were another source of tension

• 1830: French uses Barbary pirates as pretext for invading Algeria

  • Blockaded port of Algiers then landed troops, but conquest was not as easy

  • Algerians fought a long and bloody war of resistance

  • France conquered coastal plain through scorched earth policy (similar to “Total War”) and relocated farmers to less fertile areas

  • Destroyed livelihoods of thousands of Algerians, killed tens of thousands of French troops and many more Algerians

• France extended its control to the rest of Maghreb

  • Tunisia became French protectorate (1881) then Morocco (1912)

  • Though part of French empire, neither territories were under French control as much as Algeria

Algerian resistance to French colonization

• There was fierce resistance to French colonization - it was one of Africa’s hardest fought wars of res. To European colonial conquest

  • An early struggle was led by Abd al-Qadir who united the scattering Arab and Berber clans in a jihad (holy war) against French invaders

  • Although he was captured then exiled in 1847, resistance continued for another 30 years

  • France only secured control of the area between the coast and mountains in 1879

Algeria as a French colony

• Expulsion of Algerians from the coast left it open for Europeans

  • The rate of immigration (INTO the country) was not as swift as the gov’t hoped

  • Increase in # of settlers post 1878, when an outbreak of phylloxera (disease) destroyed French vineyards and many small wine growers moved to Algeria which was suitable for viticulture

  • Beginning of 20th century: wine was Algeria’s main export, and production in Algeria later exceeded France’s

• 1880: Estimated 300k immigrant settlers, but only 50% were French. The others were from Spain, Italy, Malta, etc.

  • Smaller farmers did not remain on land, but drifted to towns/cities

  • Wealthy people bought most of the land

  • Most arable land was in European hands and worked by poorly paid and highly taxed Algerian peasants

• The colons (colonists) were known as pied noirs (“black feet”) and had great influence in French politics → no French gov’t could alienate them

• 1881: French government made Algeria part of France itself 

  • Created three départements centered on cities of Algiers, Oran, and Constantine

  • These were now part of metropolitan France - home area of country

  • While Southern Algeria was still under military control

  • Seen as attempt to regain lost prestige and territory post Franco-Prussian War 

• Under French rule, these cities grew rapidly due to European immigration and influx of impoverished Algerians moving in hopes of survival

• Contrast between vineyards, olive groves, and green fields of French settlers and Algerians areas which were over-grazed and dry

• Muslim were considered to be French subjects but not citizens, and treated as alien and inferior

  • Language of Arabic was replaced by French

  • French law replaced Islamic law

  • No political rights, highly taxed, and strict regulations that limited freedom of movement

The rise of the nationalist movement

• Had origins in WWI when 173k Algerians fought in the French army and thousands more assisted in French factories

  • Exposed to workings of democracy

  • Poverty and unemployment drove thousands of more Agerians to seek work in France where wages were low and conditions poor

• 1920s and 1930s, 3 strands of nationalism developed

• Most revolutionary movement developed among migrant workers in France; Led by Messali Hadj as movement called Étoile Nord-Africaine (North African Star) - aimed to protect rights of these migrant workers (1926)

  • Also had political goals for Algeria - freedom of the press, establishment of Arabic schools, confiscation of large estates, parliament elected by universal suffrage, and independence for Algeria

  • Many workers took these ideas home when they returned

  • When Hadj returned in 1937, he formed Parti du Peuple Algérien (PPA) or Party of Algerian People but was soon banned

• Moderate Ferhat Abbas wanted equality for Muslim Algerians as French citizens - goal that was consistent with assimilation

  • Agricultural reforms and abolition of special privileges for pied noirs

  • Mod liberals supported his ideas were in favor with maintaining links with France but wanted more rights for Muslims

• Religious movement called Association des Ulema led by Abdul-Hamid Ben Badis 

  • Algerian nationalism could only succeed with return to principles of Islam

  • Stirred up sense of religious/national consciousness but did not have practice political role in resistance

• Pied noirs rejected any reform even by moderates like Abbas

  • Liberals in French government who supported reform were confronted by stubborn opposition

• 1936: Popular Front gov’t led by socialist Léon Blum was more sympathetic to reform

  • 1939 Violette Plan - extension of French citizenship with full political rights of certain Algerian muslims

  • Abbas and other moderates welcomed the plan, Hadj rejected it as new instrument of colonialism

  • This plan was rejected by pied noirs and was never implemented

• Abbas moved from support of assimilation to a Muslim Algeria sustaining its own culture while still being associated with France

Algeria during the Second World War

• Involved overseas empires of Europe as well 

• 80k African troops were sent from French West African to defend France against Germany - Algerians also volunteered

• When France surrendered to Nazi Germany (1941), colonial officials in NA and WA declared loyalty to Vichy government - gov’t in collaboration with Nazis

  •  The new admin. Increased difficulties for Muslims and Jews

• NA became area of conflict

  • 1940-43: fighting between Allied and Axis in Ethiopia, Libya, and Tunisia

• 1942: US and Britain landed troops in Morocco and Algeria to aid

  • Colonial authorities abandoned support for Vichy and switched to support Free French

  • The Allied forces used Algeria as a base to defeat Axis armies then Italy

• 1943: Ferhat Abbas and other nationalists leaders drew up a doc called Manifeste du Peuple Algérien or the Manifesto of the Algerian People calling for a constitution that would guarantee equality, land reform, official language of Arabic, etc. 

• Free French Leader de Gaulle and new gov’r of Algeria, Georges Catroux instead suggested a package based on Violette Plan

• Abbas, Hadj, and other leaders formed Friends of Manifesto and Liberty (AML) to work for independence

  • Large #s of banned PPA joined AML - est. a newspaper “Égalité” that soon had 500k subscribers

• 1945: growing unrest from food shortages and unemployment → demonstrations release from jail Messali Hadj and independence for Algeria

Main short-term causes of the war

The impact of the Second World War on Africa

• WWII had impact on Africa and on attitudes toward colonialism

  • African soldiers who were “making the world safe for democracy” questioned why the ideals they fought for did not apply to their colonies

  • Allied ladders like FDR and Churchill had drawn up the Atlantic Charter that pledged support for self-determination

  • The horrors of Nazi race policies → world opinion became increasingly critical of racism and colonialism

  • This was also supported by newly formed UN, which proclaimed commitment to uphold human rights and self determination

  • These ALL led to more assertive spirit of nationalism

• War also affected colonial powers - Japanese success in defeating French, British, and Dutch in SE Asia destroyed myth of white supremacy

  • European powers were seriously weakened → changes in attitudes toward their empires

  • British were prepared to grant independence to India but the French chose another approach

French colonial policy post WWII

• Post 1945: French gov’t determined to recover as much as empire → for econ, prestige, etc. reasons → two unsuccessful wars to maintain control (Indochina, Algeria)

  • Based on notion that Algeria was part of France, heavy investments, and large presence of French settlers/influence of pro-pied noir

  • 1950s: oil and natural gas deposits were discovered in Algerian sahara → dream of independence oil supply for France

  • Use of Sahara for nuclear experiments

Algeria post WWII

• Population of Algeria was 9 million; 1 million pieds noirs and 8 million Muslim Algerians

  • Each group had 15 representatives sent to the National Assembly in Paris → Muslims were drastically underrepresented

• Pieds noirs dominated politics through support of other groups and agriculture, commerce, etc. 

  • Were not homogenous; many were gov’t employees, indus. Workers, etc. 

  • Were unanimous in defending their privilege and united in fear of Muslim majority

• Muslims Algerians were majority poor, illiterate, unemployed in urban areas

  • Rural poverty + dwindling food resources as increasing land for wine production → less food production

  • Many moved to cities or France to escape rural unemployment and poverty

  • 1/7 adult men were working in France; 300k

• Treated as inferior race and subject to discrimination and prejudice

  • Allowed use of Arabic language only in religious schools

  • Had representation in Algerian Assembly but administration rigged elections so only moderate Muslims who supported colonial rule were elected

• Huge income inequality between Muslims and non-Muslims

Post-war protests and oppression

• First encounter between Algerian nationalists and French authorities took play on VE Day - France celebrating victory over Germany

  • In Setif, the police clashed with marchers carrying Algerian nationalist flags/banners

  • Setif Massacre - Violence spread to 100+ killed in attacks → the harsh response resulted in deaths of at least 15k Algerians, though numbers differ

• Villages were bombed by Air Force and Navy while civilians were rounded up and shot

  • AML outlawed and over 5k Muslims including moderates like Abbas were arrested

  • Led to outrage

• Harsh repression → heightened sense of nationalism and new movements

  • Abbas formed Union Démocratique pour le Manifeste Algérien (UDMA) → called for free, secular, and republican Algeria only loosely federated with France

  • Messali Hadj repeated his demand for complete independence

• 1947: militant leaders formed Organisation Speciale, dedicated to armed struggle to win independence

  • Founders included Ahmed Ben Bella - later first leader of independent Algeria

  • The attention of the French gov’t was focused on Indochina, where Viet Minh was waging resistance, failing to recognize growth of nationalism

• Trying to diffuse, French gov’t introduced some reforms - recognized Arabic as official language, Algerian Assembly where Muslims and Europeans could elect 60 reps

  • Europeans had universal franchise while Muslims had to qualify to vote

  • In subsequent elections, pied noirs manipulated election to exclude critical Muslim reps

• Developments did not satisfy mvmt

  • In Cairo, 1954, Ben Bella and others formed Front de Libération nationale (FLN) - planned to use armed uprising

  • Focused on developing external support and building up military networks

The outbreak of war in 1954 - Toussaint Rouge

• Uprising began 1 Nov 1954

  • Small groups of FLN guerillas atk military, gov’t installations, police posts, radio stations, etc.

  • Had instructions to avoid European civilian casualties

• Cairo radio broadcast: FLN leaders called Algerians to join in the struggle for an independent Algeria

• Paris: French gov’t still reeling from loss of indochina - determined not to repeat this in Algeria

  • French prime minister, Pierre Mendès France, declared Algeria was part of French republic, and prepared to go to war to retain Algeria

  • → 8 years of bitter fighting