General Psych M2 Notes
TEXTBOOK NOTES
*textbook Ch 2 link: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/2-introduction
2.1 Why is Research Important?
Without scientific research, we’d have to rely on intuition & people’s thoughts - which can be inaccurate
With scientific evidence, you have tangible evidence that you can always prove right.
Scientific knowledge is empirical, meaning it has observable & tangible evidence that can be always be proven.
The goal of all scientists (including psychologists) is to better understand the world around them.
Behavior is observable; the mind is not
Use of Research Information
The internet has made researching information very easy, but it’s hard to not what’s true and what’s not.
This is why it’s required (& takes a while) for scientists to reach a consensus on things
so, you must exercise some skepticism, research extensively, and make sure all decisions you make as a result of your evidence are good decisions.
Research makes the difference between facts (observable realities proven by empirical evidence) & opinions (personal conclusions that might not be true)
Notable Researchers
Lots of ppl contributed to psych:
Margaret Floy Washburn: 1st woman to earn a PhD in psych, researched focused on animal behavior & cognition
Mary Whiton Calkins: opposed behaviorist movement, focused on memory & dream analysis, was 1st woman pres of APA
Francis Sumner: 1st African American to get a PhD in psych, co-founded Howard University’s dept of psych, he’s also known as the “Father of Black Psychology”
Inez Beverly Prosser: first African American woman to get a PhD in psych, focused on educational segregation issues, influential to the Brown v. BOE case ruling in favor of ending segregation
And there are other ppl too (but not as key for this assignment/course I’m guessing??)
More women & African Americans have entered the field of psych, leading to hope that diversity in the field will grow & match the modern world
The Process of Scientific Research
The scientific method involves creating a hypothesis, testing theories, making deductive & inductive reasoning, & repeatedly testing ideas to make sure they are right
2.2 Approaches to Research
There are lots of methods of research to gain knowledge, ranging from observing people (interviews, experiments, etc) to using surveys to looking at already existing records. These all correlate in some way.
Clinical or Case Studies
These types of studies involve psychologists observing 10-20 individuals throughout their entire careers.
These studies often study very rare traits
Ex: a case of Canadian Siamese twins (Kirsta & Tatiana) joined at the head at the thalamus (where sensory info is sent before it’s processed)
scientists guessed the twins would share in sensory experiences (like if one laughed during a movie, the other would)
they were right, but they still shared their own uniqueness and identity
Naturalistic Observation
Observing ppl (or animals!) in their natural setting without disrupting them, sometimes by disguising someone or hiding or quietly observing, is a great way to gain accurate data on their behavior.
However, this is hard to do; you can’t guarantee you’ll always get the behavior (or subjects!) you want - they could sleep, leave, etc.
It also requires lots of $$, time, & luck.
Survey Says…(lol)
Surveys are a great way of asking for any info you want to as wide a group of people as you want.
It allows for good generalization (applying the data to the general public/population) bc it shows more accurate diversity
However, there are probs:
you can’t guarantee the people will be honest, whether they forget something, lie, etc.
plus, there are LOTS more people out there in the world than the amount of people you’ll be surveying, so you can’t fully expect the results to be accurate for all of the population(s).
Archival Research
Some researchers use archival research to get data. They look at past records to gain data.
This is much cheaper and quicker bc you don’t interact with people, but since they aren’t tailored to your research, you have to ask the right questions/change yours to make the data match what you need.
Longitudinal & Cross-Sectional Research
Both research allows for observing individuals closely to get data
They require lots of time, $, resources. So, sometimes researches will end projects early, or (many times) participants will leave the project.
Still, it offers insight into the cultural and generational/age aspects of different topics that may be researched (like same-sex marriage support)
2.3 Analyzing Findings
Correlational Research & Cause-and-effect
This research examines the relationship & predictability of two variables - their correlation.
Correlation coefficients tell us how closely related the two variables are.
The catch? It DOESN’T tell us cause-and-effect
Ex: Students who study longer often get higher test scores, but studying doesn’t always mean higher test scores - some students are naturally gifted.
Confounding variables also can get in the way, confusing us about what actually caused the change (was it a cause-and-effect? A confounding variable? Something else?)
The only thing that can tell us whether something was a cause-and-effect is an experiment.
Illusory Correlations
Sometimes we make illusory (false) correlations, for many reasons:
we hear/read about something and assume it’s right when it might not be
it’s easier to think of certain info/evidence, even when that evidence is very limited and potentially false
we get hunches & ignore evidence telling us we’re wrong, agreeing with any/all evidence (or lack of) supporting our beliefs/claims (aka confirmation bias)
Causality: Conducting Experiments & Using the Data
Like mentioned earlier, it’s crucial to have an experiment before claiming there’s a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables.
First, you have to make an EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS:
all experiments need a hypothesis first
These hypotheses must come from either real-world observations or from looking back at previous research
to test said hypothesis, you MUST have an experiment (personal testimony/observation isn’t enough)
Next, you DESIGN AN EXPERIMENT
First, you need to establish a control group & an experimental group to make sure anything that happens is a result of you changing things and NOT due to chance.
You also need an operational definition and to define what you’ll look for/what you’re measuring in your experiment
It’s also essential to prevent experimental bias in the study. There are different types of experiments to prevent this:
single-blind studies; the participants don’t know if they’re in the control or experimental group BUT the researches DO
double-blind studies; BOTH participants & researchers don’t know who’s in which group
These ensure no results are from people thinking/knowing they took something and then making themselves feel a certain way (placebo effect). All results are honest.
Independent & Dependent Variables are key too:
IVs are controlled & changed by researchers
DVs are measured to show how much effect the change in the IV has.
Selecting & Assigning the right Experimental Participants is CRUCIAL:
The majority of experiments use college students (even though they’re less diverse and accurate of a comparison to the general public)
Samples of the targeted population you want to research are chosen. The best kind of samples are random, so that we know that there’s no preference or a clear majority of a systemic trope (race, gender/sex, religion, etc)
They’re also more representative of the general population
Random assignment (of experimental or control groups) does the same thing, & ensures any and all differences come from changing the IV.
Interpreting Experimental Findings is next!
After data is collected from the experimental & control groups, a statistical analysis is done to see how likely any difference found between the two groups is by chance - if it is by chance, then it’s meaningless to the experiment.
Psychologists want to limit this possibility to 5% or less
After research is done, it’s time to Report Research
Psychologists/scientists often have their findings peer-reviewed first
if it’s peer-reviewed, fellow scientists have looked at it to make sure it:
has no flaws in design, methods, & statistical analysis
has reasonably made conclusions from observations made
is (the experiment) explained in a clear way so others can understand & copy it
Then, it’s published for fellow scholars to look at
the hope is that the results are replicable & other scientists will try the experiments/adopt the findings themselves & say it helps their field
It’s important to look at Reliability & Validity
They make sure experimental results are accurate & can be replicated
2.4 ETHICS
Today, scientists agree it’s vital for research to be ethical, but it hasn’t always been the case.
Research Involving Human Participants
All research involving humans undergoes strict gov rules
The IRB reviews proposals for research before the studies w/humans can be done
Participants must also sign an informed consent form, to make sure they know they have rights:
their information is completely confidential
they can withdraw at any moment w/no penalty
their involvement is voluntary
they also learn about the risks & consequences
Sometimes deception is needed (lying/hiding truth from participants) to protect the integrity of the research
when this happens, participants must get a debriefing, explaining why the deception is happening, why the experiment is happening, etc.
Research Involving Animals
Animals also must be treated ethically
Since animals have many similar basic processes to humans, they’re good to use for experiments & are often used in cases where using humans would be unethical
Most of these animals are birds or rats (about 90%)
The IACUC is charged with inspection of all animal facilities & ensuring animals are treated right.
Researchers must minimize pain & distress among animals
VOCAB
archival research: using existing records to answer research questions
attrition: a reduction of experiment participants due to them dropping out
cause-and-effect relationship: changes in one variable cause changes in another variable; can only be proven through an experiment
clinical or case study: observational research focused on few (even one) people
confirmation bias: tending to ignore evidence that disproves beliefs/ideas
confounding variable: unexpected outside factor that causes the IV or DV to change, meaning the experiment didn’t work as planned
control group: a group that has no change done to it; is used as a baseline or comparison
correlation: relationship between variables
correlation coefficient: Tells the strength & relationships of variables, ranging from -1 to 0 to 1. Represented by r.
cross-sectional research: comparing multiple segments of the population at the same time (ex: surveying a group of 20 yr olds about their eating habits, and a separate group of 30 yr olds, and a group of 40 yr olds.
debriefing: Truthful information given to participants when an experiment involves deception
deception: Purposely misleading participants to protect the experiment’s integrity
deductive reasoning: predictions made based on generalizations
dependent variable: a variable measured to see how much effect the independent variable had
double blind study: an experiment where both researchers and participants don’t know who’s in the control group & who’s in the experimental group
empirical: objective, tangible evidence that can be found/observed again & again, no matter who observes it
experimental group: the group that experiences changes/manipulation to test hypothesis/answer research questions
experimenter bias: researcher bias that can skew results
fact: objective & verifiable observation supported by evidence
falsifiable: able to be proven false by results
generalizing: applying findings from a specific research project to larger segments of society
hypothesis (plural: hypotheses): a testable prediction about how the world will behave if an idea is correct; often worded in an if-then statement
illusory correlation: seeing false, non-existent relationships between two factors
independent variable: variable that is changed to measure the dependent variable
inductive reasoning: conclusions are drawn from observations
informed consent: when participants are informed about their rights, the experiment, & risks
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC): a committee aimed at ensuring ethicalness in animal experiments
Institutional Review Board (IRB): a committee aimed at ensuring ethicalness in human experiments
inter-rater reliability: a measure of reliability testing the consistency of observations made by different observers
longitudinal research: data-gathering repeated over a long period of time (ex: survey people about their eating habits at 20, then again at 30, and again at 40)
naturalistic observation: observing behavior in its natural setting (without disrupting said natural setting)
negative correlation: two variables change in opposite directions (as one increases, the other decreases)
observer bias: when observations are skewed to match observers’ expectations.
operational definition: defining what will be used to measure the DV
opinion: personal judgements, conclusions, or attributes that may or may not be accurate
participants: subjects of psych research
peer-reviewed journal article: research that has been examined & edited by fellow scientists to ensure it is easy to understand/read by fellow scholars & is accurate & correct
placebo effect: someone’s beliefs influencing their experience/feelings in a situation
population: overall group of individuals that researches are interested in
positive correlation: two variables change in the same direction (as one grows, the other grows)
random assignment: when people are randomly assigned to experimental & control groups to ensure diversity & no bias - everyone has equal chance at being selected to a group
random sample: randomly selecting a section of the population - every person has an equal chance at being selected
reliability: the ability to consistently produce a result
replicate: repeating an experiment to test its reliability
sample: subset of individuals from a larger population
single-blind study: when participants don’t know which group (experimental or control) they are part of, but researchers do
statistical analysis:
survey: list of questions answers by participants; allows for gaining data from a larger population & lets researches ask basically any question they have
theory: well-developed set of ideas proposing an explanation for observed phenomena
validity: accuracy of a result in measuring what it’s designed to measure (basically how accurate something is in measuring something)
LECTURE NOTES
Psych’s 4 main goals: to describe, explain, predict & change behavior
Science is defined by HOW it studies something - not WHAT it studies
Scientific method’s 5 steps: observe phenomenon, make hypothesis & predictions, test through empirical research, draw conclusions, & evaluate conclusions
3 Main Types of Research:
descriptive research: describes what may be occurring
Correlational research: tells if a relationship exists
Experimental research: answers why something is occurring; tells about case and effect: goal is to assign causation
TedTalk - 5 tips to improve critical thinking:
formulate your question
Gather your info
Apply info (and use it to ask questions)
Consider the implications (of your decision)
Explore other viewpoints (discover why someone might think differently than you)
H