chapter 13

Two Basic Structural Systems in Architecture

  • Shell System

    • Definition: Building materials act as both structural support and sheathing.
    • Example: Shell structures are comprised of a single material that provides both function and aesthetic appeal.

  • Skeleton and Skin Method

    • Definition: A rigid structure is created first, then sheathed in various materials.
    • Characteristics: This system allows for a variety of sheathing materials, contributing to aesthetic choices in design.

Loads in Architecture

  • Loads
    • Definition: Forces that buildings must handle, including both pushing (compression) and pulling (tension) forces.
    • Important Materials: Must possess high compressive strength (ability to withstand compression) and tensile strength (ability to withstand tension).

Building Methods

  • Stacking and Piling (Load Bearing Construction)

    • Description: Simplest method; thicker base layers support thinner upper layers, while minimizing openings in walls to maintain structural integrity.
    • Examples: Brick, stone, adobe structures that emphasize load-bearing walls without large voids.

  • Post and Lintel Construction

    • Description: Two vertical uprights support a horizontal beam (lintel).
    • Historical Development:
    • Greek orders refined this method into three main styles:
      1. Doric: Flat capital, no base.
      2. Ionic: Thinner, decorative capital with volutes.
      3. Corinthian: Highly decorated capital with acanthus leaves.

  • Corbelling

    • Definition: Stack stones where each stone projects slightly over the lower stone, creating a series of horizontal layers.
    • Limitation: Does not create large, unobstructed interior spaces.

  • Round Arch

    • Invention: Developed by Mesopotamians, perfected by Romans.
    • Functional Characteristics: Self-supporting and spans wide spaces; extended to create barrel vaults and groin vaults.

  • Pointed Arch

    • Innovation: Used in Gothic architecture; directs weight downward rather than outward, allowing for thinner walls and larger openings for stained glass.

Domes

  • Definition: Curved vault that covers interior spaces, can be constructed through various techniques including corbelling and pointed arches.
  • Examples:
    • Pantheon: Dome diameter of 140 feet, height of 142 feet, with a central oculus for light.
    • Taj Mahal: Dome constructed with a pointed arch design; celebrated for its ornamental white marble structure.

Impact of Materials and Technology on Architecture

  • Advent of Iron

    • Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace (1851): Built as a large exhibition space using iron framing and glass sheathing.
    • Gustave Eiffel’s Eiffel Tower: A skeleton iron structure celebrating metal's beauty and structural potential.

  • Balloon Frame Construction (1833)

    • Definition: Skeleton framework using lightweight materials and mass-produced nails; developed for residential buildings.

  • Steel Frame Construction

    • Definition: Provides a solid framework for large multistory buildings; relies on metal for stability.
    • Innovations: Accompanied by the invention of the elevator.

Modern Innovations in Architecture

  • Reinforced Concrete

    • Definition: Concrete strengthened with embedded metal, allowing for versatile designs and load-bearing capabilities.
    • Example: Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright, featuring cantilevered forms supported by reinforced concrete.

  • Digital Design and Fabrication

    • Tools: CAD (Computer-Aided Design) and CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining revolutionizing the architectural design process.
    • Example: Guggenheim Museum Bilbao designed using 3D modeling software for complex forms.

  • Sustainability in Architecture

    • Green Architecture: Focuses on environmental impacts, aiming for energy efficiency, sustainable materials, and renewable resources.
    • Example: Michael Green’s Wood Innovation and Design Center showcasing the structural potential of mass timber.

  • Biomimetic Architecture

    • Definition: Inspired by nature to create sustainable designs, such as the National Stadium in Beijing based on bird nests.

Social and Cultural Impacts of Architecture

  • Architecture Reflecting Gender Societal Norms

    • Examples: Taos Pueblo constructed by women; limitations on gender access to certain spaces within architecture.
    • Importance of building forms and layouts in representing societal roles and relationships.

  • Architectural Responses to Urban Challenges

    • Public Spaces: Creation of parks and green spaces as responses to urban density and environmental degradation (e.g., the High Line in New York).
    • Community-focused designs addressing homelessness and housing needs (e.g., 3D printed homes for the needy).