Psychological Disorders Notes
Key Theme: Understanding psychological disorders includes considerations of their origins, symptoms, and development, as well as how behavior relates to cultural and social norms.
Psychopathology: scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders
The dividing line between normal and abnormal behavior is often determined by social or cultural context.
Strong social stigma
Serious departure from the prevailing social and cultural norms
Slightly higher rate of violence; only with extreme psychological symptoms
Psychological disorder or mental disorder:
Pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that:
Causes significant personal distress
Impairs the ability to function in one or more important areas of life, or both
DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition); published by the American Psychiatric Association:
Describes the specific symptoms and diagnostic guidelines for different psychological disorders.
Identifies more than 260 specific psychological disorders
Includes symptoms, criteria that must be met to make a diagnosis, and typical course for each mental disorder
Criticisms of DSM-5-TR
Limitations
Some conditions too typical to be considered disorders
Arbitrary cutoffs between people with and without particular disorder and between different diagnosis
Gender bias for some diagnosis
Possible bias from financial ties of many DSM-5-TR authors to pharmaceutical industry
Alternatives
Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) (NIMH)
Identification of similar genetic risk factors and similar changes in brain, general p factor
World Health Organization’s International Classification of Disease (ICD)
Social Media and Diagnosis
Differences were found in Instagram photos posted by depressed and non-depressed people.
Google searches (“how to kill yourself” or “painless suicide”) are higher in suicidal people.
Twitter (X) or Facebook searches for sadness or loneliness predicted depression.
Some researchers suggest that social media could eventually revolutionize mental health care if ethical guidelines are implemented.
Prevalence of Psychological Disorders
National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) (Kessler and colleagues)
Psychological disorders are more prevalent than many people believe; high degree of comorbidity.
Approximately 26% of Americans experienced symptoms of a psychological disorder during the previous year; 46% experienced symptoms at some point in their lives.
SAMHSA (2020)
50 million U.S. adults had psychological disorder.
One quarter do not have access to treatment in 2019; trend shared globally.
Lack of insurance, low income, lack of access to mental health care
Additional Diagnostic Categories in DSM-5-TR
Neurodevelopmental disorders
Substance-related and addictive disorders
Somatic symptom and related disorders
Disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders
Anxiety Disorders, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Key Theme: Intense anxiety that disrupts normal functioning is an essential feature of anxiety disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder.
Anxiety: unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal, feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry
Physically alert; mentally alert
Anxiety disorders: category of psychological disorders in which extreme anxiety is main diagnostic feature and causes significant disruptions in person’s cognitive, behavioral, or interpersonal functioning
Irrational; uncontrollable; disruptive
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, global, and persistent symptoms of anxiety
When one source of worry is removed, another takes its place.
Explaining GAD
Environmental, psychological, genetic, and other biological factors are probably involved in GAD.
Problematic anxiety can be evident from a very early age.
Early stressful experiences may contribute.
Panic Attacks and Panic Disorders
Panic attack: sudden episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly accelerates in intensity
Panic disorder: anxiety disorder in which person experiences frequent and unexpected panic attacks
Ataque de nervios
Agoraphobia: anxiety disorder involving extreme fear of experiencing a panic attack or other embarrassing or incapacitating symptoms in a public situation where escape is impossible and help is unavailable
Explaining Panic Disorder
Triple vulnerabilities model of panic (Barlow)
Biological predisposition toward anxiety
Low sense of control over potentially life-threatening events
Oversensitivity to physical sensations
Catastrophic cognitions theory (Hinton & others)
Oversensitive to physical sensations and also tendency to catastrophize meaning of their experience
Classical conditioning plays a role in both of these models of panic disorder.
Mental Health During the Pandemic
Pandemic, most likely in combination with the rising racial tensions and xenophobia, led to an increase in psychological disorders.
Globally, about half of the general public experienced pandemic- related psychological consequences including sleep problems, anxiety, and depression.
Inequalities during pandemic
Disproportionate toll of COVID-19 on Black and Hispanic people and social unrest associated with BLM movement
Phobias
Phobia: persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity
Specific phobia: excessive, intense, and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that is actively avoided or endured with marked anxiety
Encountering feared situation or object can provoke a full-fledged panic attack.
Approximately 7% of the general population experiences a specific phobia.
More than twice as many women as men suffer from specific phobia.
Categories of Specific Phobias
Fear of particular situations
Fear of features of the natural environment
Fear of injury or blood
Fear of animals and insects
Social anxiety disorder: anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations
One of most common psychological disorders
More prevalent among women than men
Core of social phobia seems to be irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or critically evaluated by others
Can vary by culture:
Japanese men suffer from taijin kyofusho (fear that their own appearance or smell, facial expression, or body language will offend, insult, or embarrass other people).
Explaining Phobias: Learning Theories
Basic learning principles: Some phobias can be explained in terms of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
Biological preparation: Certain fears, such as of spiders or heights, have an evolutionary history and may represent a fear of contamination.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Key Theme: Extreme anxiety and intrusive thoughts are symptoms of both posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD).
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Core Symptom Clusters
Disorder triggered by exposure to highly traumatic event
Results in frequent, involuntary, and intrusive memories of the event
Avoidance of stimuli and situations associated with the event
Negative changes in thoughts, moods, and emotions
Persistent state of heightened physical arousal
Originally, PTSD was associated with military combat.
Can develop in survivors of other extreme trauma
Core symptoms have been identified.
Likelihood of developing PTSD is linked to personal or family history and/or magnitude of trauma experienced.
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD): disorder characterized by:
Intrusive, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and
Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform (compulsions).
Obsessions
Repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety
Common: fear of dirt, germs; pathological doubt about having completed a task
Compulsions
Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that a person feels driven to perform to prevent or reduce anxiety and distress, or to prevent a dreaded event or situation
May be overt or covert
Explaining Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Biological factors
Deficiency in serotonin, norepinephrine implicated
Drugs that increase availability of these neurotransmitters decrease symptoms.
Dysfunction in specific brain areas
Areas involved in the fight-or-flight response
Frontal lobes, which play a key role in ability to think and plan ahead
Heightened neural activity in caudate nucleus involved in regulating movements
Disorders Involving Intense Anxiety
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Persistent, chronic, unreasonable worry and anxiety
General symptoms of anxiety, including persistent physical arousal
Panic Disorder
Frequent and unexpected panic attacks, with no specific or identifiable trigger
Specific Phobias
Intense anxiety or panic attack triggered by a specific object or situation
Persistent avoidance of feared object or situation
Social Anxiety Disorder
Irrational anxiety related to being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized in social situations
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Anxiety triggered by intrusive, recurrent memories of a highly traumatic experience
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Anxiety caused by uncontrollable, persistent, recurring thoughts (obsessions) and/or urges to perform certain actions (compulsions)
Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
Key Theme: In the depressive and the bipolar disorders, disturbed emotions cause psychological distress and impair daily functioning.
Understanding Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
Emotions violate criteria of normal moods in quality, intensity, and duration.
Depressive disorders and bipolar disorders are given distinct DSM-5-TR categories.
Both the depressive and bipolar disorders are sometimes called mood disorders or affective disorders.
Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder
Mood disorder
Characterized by extreme and persistent feelings of despondency, worthlessness, and hopelessness
Causes impaired emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning
Symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder
Symptoms of depression affect the whole person—emotionally, cognitively, behaviorally, and physically.
Emotional symptoms: feelings of sadness, guilt, or worthlessness
Cognitive symptoms: difficulty thinking, concentrating, and remembering
Behavioral symptoms: crying and withdrawal from social activities
Physical symptoms: changes in appetite and weight, sleep difficulties (sleeping too much or too little), and diminished sexual interest; anxiety
Diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder
In major depressive disorder, a person must display most symptoms described in DSM-5-TR for 2 weeks or longer.
Persistent depressive feelings may or may not be triggered by life events.
Bereavement
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Persistent depressive disorder
Prevalence and Course of Major Depressive Disorder
Prevalence: 20 million American adults and 300 million adults worldwide are affected by major depressive disorder.
Lifetime prevalence: About 15% of Americans at some point in their lives
Gender: Women are about twice as likely as men to be affected by major depression.
Women more vulnerable for variety of reasons.
Men may be undercounted as expression of depression is different.
Cultural differences: occurs globally; similar symptom presentation; difference in ways it is talked about
Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder: mood disorder involving periods of incapacitating depression alternating with periods of extreme euphoria and excitement; formerly called manic depression
Manic episode: sudden, rapidly escalating emotional state characterized by extreme euphoria, excitement, physical energy, and rapid thoughts and speech
Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder
Person experiences extreme mood swings.
Episodes of incapacitating depression alternate with shorter periods of extreme euphoria, called manic episodes.
Usually, manic episode immediately precedes or follows a bout with major depression.
Small percentage of people experience only manic episodes.
Disorder involves abnormal moods at both ends of emotional spectrum.
Cyclothymic disorder (milder form of bipolar disorder)
People experience moderate but frequent mood swings for two years or longer.
Mood swings are not severe enough to qualify as either bipolar disorder or major depression.
People with it are perceived as being extremely moody, unpredictable, and inconsistent.
Prevalence and Course of Bipolar Disorder
Typically occurs in the person’s early twenties; lasts from a few days to a couple of months
Commonly recurs every few years; small percentage display rapid cycling
Among people who have had at least one depressive episode, only about 9% eventually are diagnosed.
No gender differences in prevalence
Can often be controlled by medication (lithium)
Explaining Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorders
Considerable evidence points to the role of genetic factors, biochemical factors, and stressful life events in development of depressive disorders and bipolar disorders.
Genetic predisposition
Activation of brain structure differences
Brain chemistry
Stress
Cigarette smoking and development of major depression
Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder
Loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities
Despondent mood; feelings of emptiness, worthlessness, or excessive guilt
Preoccupation with death or suicidal thoughts
Difficulty sleeping or excessive sleeping
Diminished ability to think, concentrate, or make decisions
Diminished appetite and significant weight loss
Persistent Depressive Disorder
Chronic depressed feelings that are often less severe than those that accompany major depressive disorder
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Recurring episodes of depression that follow a seasonal pattern, typically occurring in the fall and winter months and subsiding in the spring and summer month
Bipolar Disorder
One or more manic episodes characterized by euphoria, high energy, grandiose ideas, flight of ideas, inappropriate self-confidence, and decreased need for sleep
Usually one or more major depressive episodes
In some cases, may rapidly alternate between symptoms of mania and major depressive disorder
Cyclothymic Disorder
Moderate, recurring mood swings that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder
Eating Disorders: Anorexia, Bulimia, and Binge-Eating Disorder
Key Theme: Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder are psychological disorders characterized by severely disturbed, maladaptive eating behaviors.
Characteristics of Eating Disorders
Eating disorders: category of psychological disorders characterized by severe disturbances eating behavior
Eating disorders can include:
Serious and maladaptive disturbances in eating behavior,
Reduced food intake,
Severe overeating, and
Obsessive concerns about body shape or weight.
90 to 95% of people who experience an eating disorder are female.
Eating Disorders: Definitions
Anorexia Nervosa
Severe and extreme disturbance in eating habits and calorie intake
Body weight that is significantly less than what would be considered normal for the person’s age, height, and gender, and refusal to maintain a normal body weight
Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat
Distorted perceptions about the severity of weight loss and a distorted self-image, such that even an extremely emaciated person may perceive herself as fat
Bulimia Nervosa
Recurring episodes of binge eating, which is defined as an excessive amount of calories within a two-hour period
The inability to control or stop the excessive eating behavior
Recurrent episodes of purging, which is defined as using laxatives, diuretics, self- induced vomiting, or other methods to prevent weight gain
Binge-Eating Disorder
Recurring episodes of binge eating
The inability to control or stop the excessive eating behavior
Not associated with recurrent episodes of purging or other methods to prevent weight gain
Anorexia Nervosa
Anorexia nervosa eating disorder
Excessive weight loss, an irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted body self-perception
Key features
Refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight; intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat; distorted perception about body size; denial of seriousness of weight loss
Effects
Similar to that of starvation; BMR, glucose, insulin, and leptin blood level decrease; decreased estrogen or testosterone levels
Bulimia Nervosa
Bulimia nervosa eating disorder
Binges of extreme overeating followed by self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, or other inappropriate methods to purge excessive food and prevent weight gain
Key features
Fear of gaining weight; stay within a normal weight range; usually recognize that they have an eating disorder; binges typically occur twice a week, triggered
Effects
Disruption of electrolyte balance (muscle cramps, irregular heartbeat; erosion of tooth enamel; damage to GI track
Binge-Eating Disorder
Binge-eating disorder
Engage in bingeing behaviors (DSM-5-TR)
Do not engage in purging or other behaviors that rid their bodies of the excess food
Experience the same feelings of distress, lack of control, and shame that people with bulimia experience
Causes of Eating Disorders: A Complex Picture
Decreases in brain activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin
Genetic factors implicated
Family interaction patterns
Critical comments by parents
Parental modeling of disordered eating
Western cultural attitudes toward thinness and dieting
Perfectionism in childhood; negative self-beliefs; other psychological characteristics
Personality Disorders
Key Theme: The personality disorders are characterized by inflexible, maladaptive patterns of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and interpersonal functioning.
What Are Personality Disorders?
Personality disorders
Inflexible, maladaptive, pervasive pattern of thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and interpersonal functioning
Stable over time (long-term) and across situations
Deviate from expectations of individual’s culture
Occur in about 10% of general population
Usually become evident during adolescence or early adulthood
Diagnosing Personality Disorders
DSM-5-TR identifies 10 distinct personality disorder.
Categorized into 3 basic clusters
Odd, eccentric
Dramatic, emotional, erratic
Anxious, fearful
Personality Disorder Clusters and Specific Disorders
Odd, Eccentric Cluster
Paranoid Personality Disorder
Pervasive but unwarranted distrust and suspiciousness; assumes that other people intend to deceive, exploit, or harm them.
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Pervasive detachment from social relationships; emotionally cold and flat; indifferent to praise or criticism from others; preference for solitary activities; lacking in close friends.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Odd thoughts, speech, emotional reactions, mannerisms, and appearance; impaired social and interpersonal functioning; often superstitious.
Dramatic, Emotional, Erratic Cluster
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Blatantly disregards or violates the rights of others; impulsive, irresponsible, deceitful, manipulative, and lacking in guilt or remorse.
Borderline Personality Disorder
Intense, unstable relationships, emotions, and self-image; impulsive; desperate efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment; feelings of emptiness; self-destructive tendencies.
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Exaggerated, overly dramatic expression of emotions and attention-seeking behavior that often includes sexually seductive or provocative behaviors.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Grandiose sense of self-importance; exaggerates abilities and accomplishments; excessive need for admiration; boastful, pretentious; lacking in empathy.
Anxious, Fearful Cluster
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Extreme social inhibition and social avoidance due to feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to criticism, rejection, or disapproval.
Dependent Personality Disorder
Excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive, clinging behaviors; fears of separation; and the inability to assume responsibility.
Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder
Rigid preoccupation with orderliness, personal control, rules, or schedules that interferes with completing tasks; unreasonable perfectionism.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Central feature is a pattern of blatantly disregarding and violating the rights of others.
Difficulty holding job; often end up in criminal justice system
Deceiving and manipulating others for their own personal gain
Appearing to lack “conscience”
More prevalent in men than women
High rates of alcoholism and other forms of substance abuse
Evidence often seen in childhood or early adolescence (conduct disorder).
Cruelty to animals
Attacking or harming adults or other children
Theft
Setting fires and destroying property
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
Personality disorder characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and marked impulsivity
Most serious and disabling of the personality disorders; most commonly diagnosed
Moods and emotions are intense, fluctuating, and extreme, often vastly out of proportion
Inappropriate and often uncontrollable episodes of anger
Relationships with others are chaotic; desperately afraid of abandonment
“Cutting” or other acts of self- mutilation, threats of suicide, and suicide attempts are common (10% successful)
What Causes Borderline Personality Disorder?
Early views
Disruption in attachment relationships in early childhood; neglect or physical, sexual, or emotional abuse in childhood
Biosocial developmental theory
Combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors
Biological temperament characterized by extreme emotional sensitivity, impulsivity, and tendency to experience negative emotions
Caregivers do not teach control of impulses or regulation of emotions.
Parents or caregivers shape and reinforce pattern of frequent, intense emotional displays.
History of abuse and neglect may be present but is not a necessary ingredient.
The Dissociative Disorders
Key Theme: In the dissociative disorders, disruptions in awareness, memory, and identity interfere with the ability to function in everyday life.
Dissociative disorders: Extreme and frequent disruptions of awareness, memory, and personal identity impair the ability to function.
Dissociative experience: Break or disruption in consciousness during which awareness, memory, and personal identity become separated or divided
2 basic disorders
Dissociative amnesia, which can occur either with or without dissociative fugue
Dissociative identity disorder, which was previously called multiple personality disorder
Dissociative Amnesia and Dissociative Fugue
Dissociative amnesia
Partial or total inability to recall important information that is not due to a medical condition
Amnesia for personal events and information, rather than for general knowledge or skills
Dissociative fugue
Suddenly and inexplicably travels away from home, wandering to other cities or even countries
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
Dissociative disorder involves extensive memory disruptions.
Presence of two or more distinct identities, or “personalities”
Formerly called multiple personality disorder.
Not all mental health professionals are convinced that dissociative identity disorder is a genuine psychological disorder.
Dissociative Disorders Definitions
Dissociative Amnesia
Inability to remember important personal information, too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness
Dissociative Amnesia with Dissociative Fugue
Sudden, unexpected travel away from home
Confusion about personal identity or assumption of new identity
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Presence of 2 or more distinct identities, each with consistent patterns of personality traits and behavior
Behavior that is controlled by two or more distinct recurring identities
Amnesia; frequent memory gaps
Explaining Dissociative Identity Disorder
Dissociative identity disorder is extreme form of dissociative coping.
High percentage of DID patients report having suffered extreme physical or sexual abuse.
Child “dissociates” from it, creating alternate personalities to experience trauma.
Dissociative coping theory is difficult to test empirically.
Traumatic memory: Opposite effect occurs to most trauma victims.
Schizophrenia
Key Theme: One of the most serious psychological disorders is schizophrenia, which involves severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes.
Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder that involves severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes.
It is diagnosed when 2 or more of these characteristic symptoms are actively present for a month, or longer.
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Positive symptoms
Symptoms that reflect excesses or distortions of normal functioning, including delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thoughts and behavior
Delusions, or false beliefs; can lead to dangerous behaviors; consistent themes.
Hallucinations, or false perceptions; can be indistinguishable from reality.
Severely disorganized thought processes, speech occur.
Severely disorganized behavior noted.
Negative symptoms
Symptoms consist of marked deficits or decreases in behavioral or emotional functioning
Diminished emotional expression/common symptom; apathy
Inability to initiate or persist in simple forms of goal-directed behavior
Symptoms can occur in combination and vary across cultures.
The Hallucinating Brain
Researcher David Silbersweig and his colleagues (1995) used PET scans to take a “snapshot” of brain activity during schizophrenic hallucinations.
The scan shown here was recorded at the exact instant a schizophrenic patient hallucinated disembodied heads yelling orders at him.
The bright orange areas reveal activity in the left auditory and visual areas of his brain, but not in the frontal lobe, which normally is involved in organized thought processes.
Hearing and Seeing Within Your Own Mind
Brain research demonstrates internal speech,
Brain looks nearly identical to actually seeing or hearing something or hearing something.
People who experience auditory hallucinations show deficits in brain regions that are consistently associated with self-awareness.
Brain imaging also reveals that people with schizophrenia may demonstrate reduced brain activity in prefrontal cortex and increased brain activity in limbic system.
Shows an inability to recognize self-based nature of inner speech, which may represent the neurological underpinnings of distressing auditory hallucinations
Culture Differences in Delusions
Symptoms of schizophrenia often vary across cultures.
Cultural differences in hallucinations and delusions.
Content of delusions changes as culture shifts.
Recently, delusions are more likely to involve technology and media.
The Prevalence of Schizophrenia
Prevalence
One million of Americans treated for schizophrenia each year; 21 million globally.
Schizophrenia occurs in every society or culture.
The Course of Schizophrenia
Course
Onset of schizophrenia typically occurs during young adulthood.
One-quarter of those who experience an episode recover completely.
One-quarter experience recurrent episodes, but with minimal impairment in ability to function.
For one-half, schizophrenia becomes a chronic mental illness, and the ability to function may be severely impaired.
Better outcomes reported in developing world.
Explaining Schizophrenia
Genetic factors: family, twin, and adoption studies
Clusters in certain families
Risk rises when close relatives have schizophrenia.
Chromosome locations associated with genes that influence brain development, memory, and cognition seem related.
No specific pattern of genetic variation can be identified as the genetic “cause” of schizophrenia, but presence of certain genetic variations increases susceptibility.
The Immune System: The Viral Infection Theory
Viral infection theory: exposure to a viral infection during prenatal development or early infancy affects the developing brain, producing changes that make the individual more vulnerable to schizophrenia later in life
Higher likelihood of child schizophrenia
Women exposed to flu virus during the first trimester
Maternal hospitalization for infection during pregnancy
Birth in winter and spring months
Schizophrenia and Abnormal Brain Structures
Evidence
About 50% of people with schizophrenia show some type of brain structure abnormality.
Most consistent finding: enlargement of the ventricles
Loss of gray matter tissue and lower overall volume of the brain
Not conclusive
Some people with schizophrenia do not show brain structure abnormalities.
Evidence is correlational.
Schizophrenia and Atypical Brain Chemistry
Imbalances in neurotransmitters
Excessive activity of dopamine in the brain
Antipsychotic drugs reduce/block dopamine activity in the brain.
Drugs that enhance dopamine activity in the brain increase symptoms in those who already have schizophrenia.
Imbalances in glutamate and adenosine are related to schizophrenia.
However, connection between neurotransmitters and schizophrenia symptoms remains unclear.
Schizophrenia and Psychological Factors: Unhealthy Families
A Finnish study found adopted children with a biological schizophrenic mother had a higher rate of schizophrenia when raised in a disturbed, adoptive home (Tienari & others).
This graph shows the strong influence of the adoptive family environment on the development of serious mental disorders.
Understanding and Helping to Prevent Suicide
Each year almost 700,000 people around the world take their own lives, including almost 50,000 in the United States.
More than 35 people attempt suicide for every successful suicide.
Suicide is second leading cause of death for young people ages 15 to 34, but highest rate occurs consistently in those aged 75 and above.
Risk Factors Associated with Suicidal Behavior
Feelings of hopelessness and social isolation
Recent relationship problems (including from being cooped up together during the pandemic) or a lack of significant relationships.
Poor coping and problem-solving skills
Poor impulse control and impaired judgment
Rigid thinking or irrational beliefs.
A major psychological disorder, especially major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia, especially if untreated.
Childhood physical or sexual abuse
Prior self-destructive behavior
A family history of suicide
Presence of a firearm in the home
Exposure to bullying, including cyberbullying (Fisher et al., 2012)
Unemployment and financial hardship
Worry and uncertainty about the future
Alcohol or other substance abuse
Understanding and Helping to Prevent Suicide (part 2)
Reasons for attempting or committing suicide
View of life becomes more pessimistic and negative.
View of self-inflicted death become more acceptable and positive.
Suicide is viewed as the only escape from painful emotions.
Ways to help prevent suicide
Actively listen.
Do not deny or minimize person’s intentions.
Ask person to delay decision.
Encourage person to seek professional help.
Term: Psychopathology
Definition: scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders
Term: Psychological disorder or mental disorder
Definition: Pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that: Causes significant personal distress and impairs the ability to function in one or more important areas of life, or both
Term: DSM-5-TR
Definition: (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition); published by the American Psychiatric Association. Describes the specific symptoms and diagnostic guidelines for different psychological disorders.
Term: Anxiety
Definition: unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal, feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry
Term: Anxiety disorders
Definition: category of psychological disorders in which extreme anxiety is the main diagnostic feature and causes significant disruptions in the person’s cognitive, behavioral, or interpersonal functioning
Term: Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
Definition: anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, global, and persistent symptoms of anxiety
Term: Panic attack
Definition: sudden episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly accelerates in intensity
Term: Panic disorder
Definition: anxiety disorder in which a person experiences frequent and unexpected panic attacks
Term: Agoraphobia
Definition: anxiety disorder involving extreme fear of experiencing a panic attack or other embarrassing or incapacitating symptoms in a public situation where escape is impossible and help is unavailable
Term: Phobia
Definition: persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity
Term: Specific phobia
Definition: excessive, intense, and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that is actively avoided or endured with marked anxiety
Term: Social anxiety disorder
Definition: anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations
Term: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Core Symptom Clusters
Definition: Disorder triggered by exposure to highly traumatic event; Results in frequent, involuntary, and intrusive memories of the event; Avoidance of stimuli and situations associated with the event; Negative changes in thoughts, moods, and emotions; Persistent state of heightened physical arousal
Term: Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD)
Definition: disorder characterized by: Intrusive, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform (compulsions).
Term: Obsessions
Definition: Repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety
Term: Compulsions
Definition: Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that a person feels driven to perform to prevent or reduce anxiety and distress, or to prevent a dreaded event or situation
Term: Major depressive disorder
Definition: Mood disorder; Characterized by extreme and persistent feelings of despondency, worthlessness, and hopelessness; Causes impaired emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning
Term: Bipolar disorder
Definition: mood disorder involving periods of incapacitating depression alternating with periods of extreme euphoria and excitement; formerly called manic depression
Term: Manic episode
Definition: sudden, rapidly escalating emotional state characterized by extreme euphoria, excitement, physical energy, and rapid thoughts and speech
Term: Cyclothymic disorder
Definition: (milder form of bipolar disorder); People experience moderate but frequent mood swings for two years or longer; Mood swings are not severe enough to qualify as either bipolar disorder or major depression; People with it are perceived as being extremely moody, unpredictable, and inconsistent.
Term: Eating disorders
Definition: category of psychological disorders characterized by severe disturbances eating behavior
Term: Anorexia nervosa eating disorder
Definition: Excessive weight loss, an irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted body self-perception
Term: Bulimia nervosa eating disorder
Definition: Binges of extreme overeating followed by self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, or other inappropriate methods to purge excessive food and prevent weight gain
Term: Binge-eating disorder
Definition: Engage in bingeing behaviors (DSM-5-TR); Do not engage in purging or other behaviors that rid their bodies of the excess food; Experience the same feelings of distress, lack of control, and shame that people with bulimia experience
Term: Personality disorders
Definition: Inflexible, maladaptive, pervasive pattern of thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and interpersonal functioning; Stable over time (long-term) and across situations; Deviate from expectations of individual’s culture; Occur in about 10% of the general population; Usually become evident during adolescence or early adulthood
Term: Paranoid Personality Disorder
Definition: Pervasive but unwarranted distrust and suspiciousness; assumes that other people intend to deceive, exploit, or harm them.
Term: Schizoid Personality Disorder
Definition: Pervasive detachment from social relationships; emotionally cold and flat; indifferent to praise or criticism from others; preference for solitary activities; lacking in close friends.
Term: Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Definition: Odd thoughts, speech, emotional reactions, mannerisms, and appearance; impaired social and interpersonal functioning; often superstitious.
Term: Antisocial Personality Disorder
Definition: Blatantly disregards or violates the rights of others; impulsive, irresponsible, deceitful, manipulative, and lacking in guilt or remorse.
Term: Borderline Personality Disorder
Definition: Intense, unstable relationships, emotions, and self-image; impulsive; desperate efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment; feelings of emptiness; self-destructive tendencies.
Term: Histrionic Personality Disorder
Definition: Exaggerated, overly dramatic expression of emotions and attention-seeking behavior that often includes sexually seductive or provocative behaviors.
Term: Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Definition: Grandiose sense of self-importance; exaggerates abilities and accomplishments; excessive need for admiration; boastful, pretentious; lacking in empathy.
Term: Avoidant Personality Disorder
Definition: Extreme social inhibition and social avoidance due to feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to criticism, rejection, or disapproval.
Term: Dependent Personality Disorder
Definition: Excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive, clinging behaviors; fears of separation; and the inability to assume responsibility.
Term: Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder
Definition: Rigid preoccupation with orderliness, personal control, rules, or schedules that interferes with completing tasks; unreasonable perfectionism.
Term: Dissociative disorders
Definition: Extreme and frequent disruptions of awareness, memory, and personal identity impair the ability to function.
Term: Dissociative amnesia
Definition: Partial or total inability to recall important information that is not due to a medical condition; Amnesia for personal events and information, rather than for general knowledge or skills
Term: Dissociative fugue
Definition: Suddenly and inexplicably travels away from home, wandering to other cities or even countries
Term: Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
Definition: Presence of two or more distinct identities, or “personalities”
Term: Positive symptoms
Definition: Symptoms that reflect excesses or distortions of normal functioning, including delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thoughts and behavior
Term: Negative symptoms
Definition: Symptoms consist of marked deficits or decreases in behavioral or emotional functioning