BIOL 271 Lab Exam 2 Exhaustive Study Guide

Lab 7: Respiratory Physiology

  • Major Structures of the Upper Respiratory System     * Anatomical Identification: Students must be able to identify the following structures:         * Nasal cavity         * Nasopharynx         * Oropharynx         * Laryngopharynx         * Larynx         * Epiglottis     * Functional Key Roles:         * Epiglottis: A structure within the upper respiratory system whose specific function must be known for the exam.         * Larynx: Referred to in the context of the upper respiratory system; students must know its function.     * Study References: These structures are detailed on pages 592-593 of the lab manual and in Fig 22.4A (pg. 593). They are also covered in Lecture 15 with associated labeling exercises.

  • Major Structures of the Lower Respiratory System     * Primary Pathways: Includes the trachea and the various sections of the bronchial tree (referenced in Fig 22.6A, pg. 594).     * Site of Gas Exchange: Identification is required for the structures immediately surrounding and including the site of gas exchange:         * Terminal bronchiole         * Respiratory bronchiole         * Alveolar duct         * Alveolar sac         * Alveoli     * Study References: These site-specific structures are shown in Fig 22.7 (pg. 595). Review is also facilitated by Check Your Recall Question 2 (Fig 22.13) on page 604 and Lecture 16.

  • Path of Oxygen Transmission     * Air Flow Sequence: Knowledge of the sequential path inhaled air follows through the upper and lower systems is required.     * Detailed Order: Starts at the Nose and ends at the Alveoli.     * Review Resource: Procedure 22-3 (pg. 597) and the "Respiratory Tract: Air Flow Sequence Exercise" at the conclusion of Lecture 16.

  • Microscopic Identification: Lung Tissue     * Distinguishing Feature: Lung tissue is characterized by large amounts of "empty space" in microscope images. This is because the air sacs (alveoli) are hollow and filled with air.     * Reference: Figure 22.10 (pg. 600) in the lab manual.

Lab 8: Urinary System

  • Major Organs of the Urinary System     * Identifiable Organs: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.     * Reference: Fig 25.8 (pg. 684) and Lecture 19.

  • Internal and Vascular Anatomy of the Kidneys     * Structural Components: Renal pyramid and renal pelvis.     * Vasculature (Arteries and Veins):         * Renal artery and Renal vein         * Interlobar artery and Interlobar vein         * Arcuate artery and Arcuate vein         * Interlobular artery and Interlobular vein     * Reference: Fig 25.4A (pg. 681) and Lecture 19.

  • The Nephron: Structure and Filtration     * Anatomy of the Nephron:         * Afferent arteriole         * Efferent arteriole         * Glomerulus         * Proximal tubule         * Descending limb of nephron loop         * Ascending limb of nephron loop         * Distal tubule         * Collecting duct     * Glomerular Filtration Mechanism: Understanding how the glomerulus filters blood is required, including the roles of:         * Podocytes         * Foot processes         * Filtration slits     * Reference: Fig 25.6A (pg. 683), Fig 25.5 (pg. 682), and Lectures 19 and 20.

  • Microscopic Identification: Urinary Tissues     * Kidney Tissue: Identified by the presence of circular glomeruli (the distinguishing feature). Reference: Fig 25.15A (pg. 693).     * Ureter: Identified by a star-shaped space called the lumen, which is the central opening through which urine passes. Reference: Fig 25.13 (pg. 692).

  • Urinalysis and Clinical Correlations     * Testing Parameters:         * Determining high levels of hemoglobin (indicative of blood in the urine).         * Determining high levels of sugar (glucose) based on color changes on urinalysis sticks.     * Clinical Implications:         * High glucose in urine typically indicates diabetes.         * High blood in urine indicates a physiological problem or injury.     * Reference: Lecture 19 highlights these colorimetric changes.

  • Sequence of Substance Travel     * Urea Pathway: The specific path a molecule of urea takes through the system.     * Detailed Order: Starts at the Afferent arteriole and ends at the Urethra.     * Reference: Exercise 26-3 Procedure 1 (pg. 711) and the final slide of Lecture 20.

Lab 9: Digestive System

  • Major Organs and Sphincters     * Primary and Accessory Organs: Tongue, oral cavity, esophagus, salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, gall bladder, liver, small intestine, and large intestine.     * Sphincters and Connections:         * Gastroesophageal sphincter: Connects the esophagus and the stomach.         * Pyloric sphincter: Connects the stomach and the small intestine.     * Small Intestine Regions (in order):         1. Duodenum         2. Jejunum         3. Ileum     * Large Intestine Regions:         * Cecum         * Appendix         * Ileocecal valve         * Ascending colon         * Transverse colon         * Descending colon         * Sigmoid colon         * Rectum         * Anal sphincter         * Anus     * Organ Arrangement: Understanding the spatial relationship and connections of the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas to the duodenum of the small intestine (Fig 24.15A, pg. 649).

  • Digestive Enzymes     * Pancreatic Amylase: Produced in the pancreas; breaks down carbohydrates.     * Salivary Amylase: Produced in the salivary glands; breaks down carbohydrates.     * Pepsin: Produced in the stomach; breaks down proteins.     * Lipase: Breaks down lipids (fat).     * Reference: Page 659 of the lab manual.

  • Microscopic Identification: Digestive Tissues     * Small Intestine: Requires identification of distinguishing features (Lectures 21 and 22).     * Liver: Requires identification of distinguishing features (Lectures 21 and 22).     * Stomach: Requires identification of distinguishing features (Lectures 21 and 22).     * Tooth: Identification based on structural characteristics.

  • Path of Food Passage     * Detailed Sequence: Following indigestible food (e.g., cellulose) from the Mouth to the Anus.     * Requirement: Must include specific organ regions, sphincters, and valves in order.

Lab 10: Nutrition

  • Understanding Food Labels     * Key Metrics to Identify:         * Kilocalories per serving         * Macronutrient content         * Micronutrient content         * Serving size         * Servings per container         * % \text{ Daily Value}     * Calculations: Students should understand how to calculate calories from specific macronutrients (e.g., calories from fat or protein) and total container consumption. For example, calculating how many servings are needed to reach the daily recommended calcium intake.

  • Macronutrients and Micronutrients     * Carbohydrates:         * Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose found in fruit).         * Disaccharides: Double sugars (e.g., sucrose found in table sugar).         * Fiber vs. Starch: Understanding structural or digestive differences.     * Fats (Lipids):         * Saturated Fats: Often found in animal products; typically less healthy.         * Unsaturated Fats: Often found in plant oils; considered the healthiest type of fat.         * Least Healthy Fat: Trans fats (implied context).     * Proteins:         * Essential Amino Acid: An amino acid that the body cannot synthesize on its own and must be obtained from the diet.         * Complete Protein: A protein source that contains all nine essential amino acids.     * Micronutrient Uses:         * Iron: Used by the body for oxygen transport in hemoglobin.         * Vitamin D: Used for calcium absorption and bone health.

  • Energy Balance and Enzyme Digestion     * Energy Balance Calculation: Based on calorie intake versus calorie expenditure.         * Positive Energy Balance: Calorie intake exceeds expenditure; results in weight gain.         * Negative Energy Balance: Calorie expenditure exceeds intake; results in weight loss.     * Fat Digestion:         * Location: Occurs in the small intestine.         * Bile: Produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder. Function is to emulsify fats to assist lipase.         * Lipase: Produced in the pancreas (pancreatic lipase).

Lab 11: Reproductive System

  • Male Reproductive Anatomy     * Key Structures: Testes, Epididymis, Prostate gland, and Glans penis.     * Reference: Fig 27.5A (pg. 724) and Lecture 26.

  • Female Reproductive Anatomy     * Key Structures: Ovaries (2), Vagina, Uterine tube, and Body of uterus.     * Reference: Fig 27.7 (pg. 727) and Lecture 25.

  • Meiosis: Phases and Identification     * Sequence of Phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.     * Haploid Production: Meiosis involves two rounds of division, halving the chromosome number to produce four haploid cells.     * Visual Identification:         * Metaphase: Chromosomes are aligned at the center of the cell.         * Meiosis I vs. Meiosis II: Distinguished by the number of chromosomes present inside each cell.     * Reference: Fig 27.12 (pg. 731) and Lecture 25.

  • Microscopic Identification: Reproductive Tissues     * Testes: Characterized by hollow, circular structures called seminiferous tubules. Reference: Fig 27.14 (pg. 733).     * Ovaries: Characterized by the presence of follicles with oocytes inside. Visually, this appears as a smaller circle (oocyte) within a larger circle (follicle). Reference: Fig 27.19 (pg. 735).