avoiding observer expectancy and

Observer-Expectancy Effects

• Biases arise from researchers' expectations influencing data recording.

• Expectations lead to unintended communication of biases to subjects.

• Pfungst's findings on Clever Hans exemplify this effect.

• Observer expectancies can significantly distort research outcomes.

Facilitated Communication

• A technique aimed at helping individuals with autism communicate.

• Observer-expectancy effects are critical in assessing the validity of this technique.