VPSB End-of-the-Year Assessment Study Guide

Statistical Measures of Central Tendency and Variation:

  • Mean: This is the average of all numbers in a set, found by adding all the numbers together and dividing by how many there are.

  • Median: This is the middle number when all the values are listed in order. If there's an even number of values, it's the average of the two middle ones.

  • Mode: This is the number that appears most often in a set.

  • Range: This is the difference between the biggest and smallest numbers in a set, which you find by subtracting the smallest from the largest.

Anomalous Data: These are numbers that don’t fit with the other data. They usually happen due to:

  • Mistakes made by people.

  • Problems with equipment.

Atmospheric Layers and Properties:

  • Troposphere: This is where all our weather happens.

  • Stratosphere: This layer has the Ozone Layer in it, which protects us from the sun’s harmful rays.

  • Mesosphere: This is the coldest layer and helps stop meteorites from hitting Earth.

  • Thermosphere: This is the hottest layer and has two parts: the Ionosphere and the Exosphere.

  • Chemical Composition: The two most abundant gases in our atmosphere are Nitrogen and Oxygen.

Astronomy and Earth-Space Interactions:

  • Planets of the Solar System: There are nine planets in order from the sun:

    1. Mercury

    2. Venus

    3. Earth

    4. Mars

    5. Jupiter

    6. Saturn

    7. Uranus

    8. Neptune

    9. Pluto

  • Mnemonic: "My very educated mother just served us nine pizzas."

  • Lunar Phenomena:

    • Phases of the Moon: These happen because of the moon's position as it orbits Earth.

    • Lunar Eclipse: This happens when Earth is directly between the sun and the moon.

    • Solar Eclipse: This happens when the moon is between Earth and the sun.

  • The Seasons: They change because of the tilt of Earth’s axis.

Geology: Earth's Composition and Layers:

  • Internal Structure Dimensions:

    • Crust: The outer part of the Earth, which is the coolest and lightest.

    • Mantle: Below the crust where heat causes movement (like boiling water).

    • Outer Core: Liquid layer below the mantle.

    • Inner Core: The solid center of the Earth.

  • Earthquakes and Seismology:

    • Richter Scale: This is used to measure how strong an earthquake is.

    • San Andreas Fault: A major fault line in California where earthquakes happen because two tectonic plates slide past each other.

Tectonics and Landform Development:

  • Theory of Continental Drift: This theory says all continents were once part of one giant piece of land called Pangea before drifting apart.

  • Plate Boundaries:

    • Convergent Boundary: When two plates push together, mountains can form.

    • Transform Boundary: Plates slide by each other, like the San Andreas Fault.

Mineralogy and the Mohs Hardness Scale:

  • Minerals ranked by hardness from the softest to hardest:

    1. Talc (1)

    2. Gypsum (2)

    3. Calcite (3)

    4. Fluorite (4)

    5. Apatite (5)

    6. Feldspar (6)

    7. Quartz (7)

    8. Topaz (8)

    9. Corundum (9)

    10. Diamond (10)

The Rock Cycle and Earth Materials:

  • Major Rock Types:

    1. Igneous: Rocks formed from cooled magma or lava.

    2. Sedimentary: Rocks formed from compressed dirt and minerals.

    3. Metamorphic: Rocks that change due to heat and pressure.

  • Rock Cycle Transitions:

    • Igneous/Metamorphic to Sedimentary: Occurs through lifting and breaking down rocks.

    • Igneous/Sedimentary to Metamorphic: Happens because of heat and pressure.

    • Metamorphic/Sedimentary to Igneous: Happens when rocks melt and then cool.

  • Fossils: The remains of once-living things that have been preserved.

Meteorology and the Hydrosphere:

  • The Water Cycle: Driven by the sun and includes:

    • Evaporation: Water turning to vapor.

    • Transpiration: Water vapor coming from plants.

    • Condensation: Vapor forming clouds.

    • Precipitation: Water falling back to Earth as rain or snow.

Environmental Science and Resources:

  • Natural Resources:

    • Non-renewable Resource: Resources that can't be replaced quickly once used, like coal and oil.

  • Land Pollution: Caused mainly by human activities and farming.

  • Civil Engineering - Levees:

    • Definition: Build walls next to rivers to stop flooding.

    • Mississippi River Valley: Uses levees to prevent floods here.

Scientific Measurement and Systems:

  • Global Positioning System (GPS): A system that helps find exact locations on Earth.

  • SI Units (International System of Units):

    • Mass: Kilogram (kg)

    • Volume: Cubic Meters

    • Time: Second (s)

    • Length: Meters (m)

    • Density: Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³)

    • Temperature: Kelvin (K)

General Information:

  • Assessment: VPSB End-of-the-Year assessment

  • Student: Haley W

  • Grade Level: 8th grade

  • Current Geologic Era: Cenozoic