Classical and Operant Conditioning Study Guide
Classical Conditioning
Definition
Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, acquiring the ability to elicit a similar response through the pairing process.
Example: A bell (neutral stimulus) is paired with food (unconditioned stimulus) until the bell alone elicits salivation (conditioned response).
Key Terms & Examples
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Example: Dog food causes a dog to salivate; sour candy causes mouth puckering.
Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Salivation in response to food; mouth puckering with sour candy.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not naturally elicit the response.
Example: A bell before it's paired with food; a candy box before learning.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The previously neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after association.
Example: The bell after conditioning; the sight of the candy box.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
Example: Salivating at the sound of the bell; mouth puckering at the sight of the candy box.
Process of Classical Conditioning
Before Conditioning:
US (food) causes UR (salivation).
NS (bell) has no effect.
During Conditioning:
NS (bell) is presented just before US (food), repeatedly.
Example: If you repeatedly say the word "brains" followed by giving someone candy, eventually the word alone will make them salivate.
After Conditioning:
NS becomes CS (bell), which now elicits CR (salivation), even without US.
Other Classical Conditioning Concepts
Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli resembling the conditioned stimulus.
Example: A child conditioned to fear rats also fears rabbits and furry objects.
Discrimination: Learning to respond only to the original conditioned stimulus, not similar ones.
Example: Salivating only at the sound of the original bell, not other similar sounds.
Extinction: The disappearance of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Example: If the bell rings without food, the dog stops salivating to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.
Example: A week after extinction, the dog salivates to the bell again.
Higher-Order Conditioning: A new neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus.
Example: A squeaky cabinet (NS) paired with a can opener (CS) that signals food eventually makes the squeaky cabinet alone trigger the response.
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Taste Aversion: Strong negative reaction to foods associated with illness.
Example: After food poisoning from a restaurant, someone develops an aversion to that food.
Phobias: Learned fears from traumatic experiences.
Example: Fear of hospitals after a scary medical experience.
Operant Conditioning
Definition
Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences such as rewards (reinforcers) or punishments.
The learner actively operates on the environment to produce outcomes.
Key Terms & Examples
Reinforcement: Any event that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding something good to increase behavior.
Example: Giving candy when a desired behavior is performed.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing something bad to increase behavior.
Example: Taking away chores when homework is completed.
Punishment: Any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant.
Example: Giving extra work for bad behavior.
Negative Punishment: Taking away something pleasant.
Example: Losing TV privileges for misbehavior.
Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations to train complex behaviors.
Example: Rewarding a rat for moving closer to a lever, then for touching it, then for pressing it.
Primary Reinforcer: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, water).
Example: Giving food to a hungry animal.
Secondary Reinforcer: Gains value through association (e.g., money).
Example: Money is valuable because it can buy food.
Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by pleasurable outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to occur.
Example: Cats in a puzzle box learn to push the lever to escape and are more likely to repeat the behavior.
Tips for Studying with the Blurting Method
Read the term or concept.
Blurt out everything you recall about it, including examples.
Check your recall against these organized descriptions and examples.
Use active recall and self-testing to reinforce learning.
Summary Table: Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Aspect | Classical Conditioning | Operant Conditioning |
|---|---|---|
Focus | Learning by association | Learning by consequences |
Response Type | Involuntary/reflexive | Voluntary |
Key Researchers | Pavlov, Watson | Thorndike, Skinner |
Main Terms | US, UR, NS, CS, CR | Reinforcement, Punishment, Shaping |
Application Examples | Phobias, taste aversion | Training animals, child discipline |
Mental Disorders
Definition
Mental disorders are clinically significant patterns of thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that interfere with a person’s ability to function in daily life.
This includes difficulties in maintaining relationships, managing responsibilities, or ensuring personal safety.
Often, these behaviors deviate from societal norms and are considered dysfunctional.
Examples:
A person unable to go to work due to recurring panic attacks.
Persistent sadness leading to withdrawal from friends and family.
How Common Are Mental Disorders?
More than one-fourth of Americans meet criteria for one or more psychological disorders in any given year.
These disorders are cataloged in the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), the main reference for diagnosis.
Models for Explaining Mental Disorders
Historical Models:
In the Middle Ages, mental disorders were often attributed to demonic possession, with treatments like exorcisms and trephination.
Example: Erratic behavior might lead to a ritual or physical intervention.
Medical Model (Modern):
Mental disorders are viewed similar to physical illnesses, with identifiable symptoms and causes, with treatment focused accordingly.
Potential problems: Reducing individuals to a mere diagnosis rather than considering the whole person.
Example: Labeling someone as "depressed" without accounting for situational factors.
Problems with the Medical Model
Risk of stigma and overlooking environmental or societal factors.
Course terminology emphasizes "psychological disorders" over "abnormal psychology" to reduce stigma.
Example: Diagnosing ADHD without considering the school environment.
The Three "P" Framework for Causes
Predisposing Causes: Long-term factors increasing vulnerability, such as genetics or early environment.
Example: Growing up in a critical family increasing anxiety risk.
Precipitating Causes: Specific events that trigger the onset of a disorder.
Example: Losing a job triggering panic and insomnia.
Perpetuating Causes: Behaviors or thought patterns that maintain or worsen the disorder.
Example: Continuing to isolate oneself post-depression prolongs symptoms.
Classifying Disorders
The DSM-5 contains nearly 300 psychological disorders, detailing their prevalence rates, gender differences, symptoms, and origins.
To study a specific disorder, refer to its DSM-5 criteria for a structured overview.
Common Anxiety Disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD):
Characterized by excessive, constant worry about various aspects of life lasting at least six months, impeding daily functioning.
Example: Constant worry over job, relationships, and health.
Panic Disorder:
Involves recurrent panic attacks and persistent fear of future attacks, often leading to avoidance behaviors.
Example: Avoiding events for fear of public panic attacks.
Agoraphobia:
Fear of being in situations where escape may be difficult or help unavailable.
Example: Refusing to leave home due to this fear.
Specific Phobia:
Intense, irrational fear of specific objects or situations that disrupt daily life.
Example: Avoidance of travel due to a fear of flying.
Social Anxiety Disorder:
Fear of negative evaluation in social situations, leading to avoidance of events like public speaking.
Example: Extreme anxiety about giving a speech.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Obsessions: Intrusive, unwanted thoughts causing significant anxiety.
Example: Fear of contamination.
Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors performed to relieve anxiety.
Example: Excessive hand washing after fearing contamination.
Cycle: Obsessive thought → Anxiety → Compulsive behavior provides short-term relief, repeating the cycle.
Example: Checking locks multiple times to reduce burglary fears.
Trauma-Related Disorders
Acute Stress Disorder: Occurs within four weeks of a traumatic event, with symptoms like nightmares and anxiety.
Example: Nightmares after a car accident.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Same as acute stress disorder, but persists longer than four weeks.
Example: Veterans experiencing symptoms long after returning from combat.
Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa:
Involves dangerously low body weight and intense fear of gaining weight, often through severe restriction and compensatory behaviors.
Example: A dancer excessively restricting food intake.
Bulimia Nervosa:
Cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors to avoid weight gain.
Example: Binging followed by purging.
Binge-Eating Disorder:
Repeated eating of large quantities of food without regular compensatory behaviors.
Example: Consuming an excessive caloric load in one sitting without purging.
Key Terms for Studying
Predisposing Error: Long-term risk factors (e.g., genetics)
Precipitating Cause: Immediate trigger of disorder (e.g., trauma)
Perpetuating Cause: Behaviors/thoughts that sustain the disorder (e.g., avoidance)
Compensatory Behavior: Actions to offset binge eating (e.g., purging)
Overvaluation of Body Size: The undue importance of body shape in self-worth.
Tips for Blurt Studying
Read the bullet points, cover them, and try to recall examples.
Practice identifying causes illustrated in new scenarios.
Use real-life or textbook examples to reinforce understanding.
Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder
Marked by persistent low mood or loss of interest lasting at least two weeks. Must experience at least four additional symptoms, including:
Key Symptoms:
Significant weight loss or gain
Sleep disturbances
Psychomotor agitation or retardation
Fatigue or energy loss
Feelings of guilt or worthlessness
Difficulty concentrating
Recurrent thoughts of suicide
Example: Mark felt sad, couldn’t sleep, felt worthless after losing his job.
Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
Involves a depressed mood lasting “more days than not” for at least two years (no more than two-month break).
Requires only two listed symptoms, less severe than major depression.
Example: Sara feels low-energy and unmotivated most days over two years.
Bipolar Disorders
Bipolar I Disorder:
Characterized by episodes of severe depression and severe mania (lasting at least one week).
Key Symptoms of Mania:
Elevated mood
Decreased need for sleep
Rapid speech
Risky behaviors
Example: Jane impulsively spends money and needs hospitalization due to her behavior.
Bipolar II Disorder:
Features major depression and hypomania (less severe than mania, lasting at least four days).
Example: Sam has weeks of depression with short bursts of high energy, without severe impairment.
Cyclothymia:
Involves milder depressive symptoms and hypomania over at least two years.
Example: Alex experiences fluctuating moods but never severe episodes.
Core Concepts for Studying
Blurting Method Tip: Read and then cover answers; try to recall definitions and examples until confident.
Key Questions to Blurt:
Differences between major and persistent depressive disorder.
Five symptoms of a manic episode.
Distinguishing hypomania from mania.
Risky behaviors during mania.
Minimum duration for episodes in each disorder.
Causes and Treatments
Causes: Mood disorders result from genetics, brain chemistry, and environmental stressors.
Example: Identical twins share a 50% chance of schizophrenia if one is diagnosed.
Treatments: Medications (e.g., mood stabilizers) and psychotherapy (e.g., CBT).
Example: Lithium stabilizes mood, while CBT challenges negative thoughts.
Negative Core Beliefs (Beck’s Triad)
Individuals with depression often have three negative core beliefs:
Negative view of the world: “The world is unsafe.”
Negative view of the future: “Nothing will ever get better for me.”
Negative view of self: “I am worthless.”
Example: Failing one test leads to a belief of always failing.
Extra Tips for Blurting
Write out or verbally recite the criteria for each disorder.
Create your own examples for each disorder and symptom.
Distinguish between similar disorders (e.g., major vs. persistent depression).
Quiz yourself on causes, treatments, and neurotransmitters.
Summary Table: Mood Disorders Comparison
Disorder | Main Symptoms | Duration | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
Major Depressive Disorder | Depressed mood, loss of interest, 4+ symptoms | At least 2 weeks | Loss of interest, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness |
Persistent Depressive Disorder | Depressed mood, 2+ symptoms | At least 2 years; more days than not | Low-grade depression over long period |
Bipolar I | Mania and possibly depression | Mania: At least 1 week | Impulsive spending, sleeplessness, grandiosity |
Bipolar II | Depression and hypomania | Hypomania: 4+ days; depression: 2+ weeks | Productive bursts without severe impairment |
Cyclothymia | Milder highs and lows | At least 2 years | Alternating mild mood swings |
Classical and Operant Conditioning: Study Guide with Examples
Classical Conditioning
A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a natural response.
Steps to classical conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally causes reaction.
Example: Eating a tasty meal.
Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural reaction to US.
Example: Mouth watering.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does not cause the response.
Example: The word "brains".
Conditioning Process: Pairing the NS with US repeatedly.
Example: Saying