Jeremy Bentham Bk 1
Principles of Morals and Legislation
CHAPTER I — Of the Principle of Utility
(Detailed Notes — broken down by section I–XIV)
I. Basic Idea: Humans Are Ruled by Pain & Pleasure
Bentham opens with the claim that pain and pleasure are the two “sovereign masters” of human life.
They determine:
what we ought to do (morality),
what we shall do (motivation).
Humans may pretend to act independently of these forces, but we are always governed by them.
The principle of utility = the idea that actions are judged right or wrong based on whether they increase pleasure or reduce pain.
Bentham criticizes systems that ignore this natural basis and instead rely on “caprice” or irrational thinking.
II. Defining the Principle of Utility
The principle of utility is the foundation of Bentham’s entire work.
Definition:
Utility approves or disapproves of any action based on its tendency to increase or decrease the happiness of the people affected.Happiness = pleasure; unhappiness = pain.
Applies to:
actions of individuals,
governments,
any institution or system.
III. What “Utility” Means
Utility = the property in something that enables it to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness.
Or, the property that allows something to prevent mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness.
Utility applies to:
the individual person,
or the community (which is just the individuals taken together).
IV. The Interest of the Community
The phrase “interest of the community” is common but often misunderstood.
Bentham says:
The community = a fictitious body (not a real physical thing),
made up of its individual members.
Therefore, the interest of the community = the sum of the interests of the individuals in it.
V. Understanding “Interest of the Individual”
You can’t talk about the community’s interest without understanding individuals’ interests.
Something is said to be in a person’s interest if it:
adds to their total pleasures, or
reduces their total pains.
VI. When an Action Conforms to Utility
An action agrees with (or is “conformable to”) the principle of utility when:
its tendency to increase the community’s happiness is greater than its tendency to diminish it.
VII. Applying Utility to Government
A government measure conforms to utility when:
it increases the community’s happiness more than it decreases it.
This is the same standard used to judge individual actions, but applied to public policy.
VIII. Imaginary “Laws of Utility”
When someone judges an action by utility, it can be helpful to imagine a kind of moral law rooted in utility.
This is not a real law—just a mental tool to talk about actions being in line with utility.
IX. Being a “Partizan” of Utility
A person is a supporter of the principle of utility when:
their approval or disapproval of actions depends on whether the action increases or decreases community happiness.
X. Utility & Moral Language
If an action conforms to utility, we can say:
“It ought to be done,” or
“It is right,” or
“At least it is not wrong.”
According to Bentham:
Words like ought, right, wrong have no real meaning unless tied to utility.
XI. Has the Principle Been Contested?
Bentham argues that:
No one has coherently denied the principle of utility; if they seem to, they just don’t understand it.
Proof of the principle is unnecessary because:
All reasoning must start somewhere,
Utility already functions as this foundation.
XII. Humans Naturally Use Utility
People, even without formal philosophy, follow the principle of utility throughout their lives.
Even “stupid or perverse” individuals rely on it in many decisions, often without realizing it.
Intelligent people sometimes resist the principle due to:
Misunderstanding it,
Prejudice,
Fear of examining their beliefs.
XIII. Attacking Utility Usually Misuses Utility
When someone argues against the principle, their argument usually uses the principle itself:
They argue something would cause harm (pain) or is irrational.
This indirectly confirms utility rather than defeats it.
XIV. Why People Reject Utility & How to Consider It
Rejecting utility through argument is impossible.
But people may reject it because:
They misunderstand it,
They dislike its implications.
Bentham offers steps for someone who wants to reconsider:
Ask yourself if you want to discard utility entirely.
If so, identify what other principle you would use to judge actions.
Examine whether that alternative principle makes any sense.
Check whether your feelings alone can be a standard.
Consider whether that makes your principle despotic or anarchic.
Ask whether morality would collapse into each person’s subjective feelings.
If you insist your principle is reflective, define its objects.
If mixing it with utility, explain how much.
Decide where you will stop and why.
If you admit any other moral principle, explain how “right” could be defined without reference to utility.
Finally: if this other principle doesn't help us make sense of moral decisions, what good is it for?
Chapter IV Notes
VALUE OF A LOT OF PLEASURE OR PAIN, HOW TO BE MEASURED
I. Why Measure Pleasure & Pain?
Legislators aim at maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain for society.
Therefore, they need to understand:
The value of pleasures and pains
The factors that increase or decrease their strength/effect
Pleasures and pains are the tools the legislator works with.
II. Measuring Pleasure/Pain for One Individual (4 Criteria)
To an individual evaluating a single pleasure or pain by itself, its value depends on four factors:
Intensity
How strong the pleasure/pain is.
Duration
How long it lasts.
Certainty or Uncertainty
How likely it is to occur.
Propinquity or Remoteness
How near or distant it is in time.
These four apply when the person is only considering the immediate experience.
III. When Evaluating an Act (Add 2 More Criteria)
When evaluating the value of a pleasure/pain as a result of an act, add two additional factors:
Fecundity
The chance the sensation will be followed by more of the same kind.
Pleasure → more pleasure?
Pain → more pain?
Purity
The chance the sensation will NOT be followed by the opposite kind.
Pleasure → NOT followed by pain
Pain → NOT followed by pleasure
Bentham notes:
These two (fecundity & purity) belong not to the sensation itself, but to the act that produces it.
They matter only when analyzing the value of an action, not a single isolated moment of pleasure/pain.
IV. Measuring Pleasure/Pain for Multiple People (Add 1 More Criterion)
When evaluating how an action affects several people, include a seventh factor:
Extent
The number of people affected by the pleasure or pain.
So, for assessing actions affecting communities, there are 7 criteria:
Intensity
Duration
Certainty
Propinquity
Fecundity
Purity
Extent
V. Procedure for Calculating Total Pleasure/Pain of an Action
Bentham gives a step-by-step “calculus” for determining the total value of an act’s consequences:
For each affected individual:
Identify each pleasure produced immediately.
Identify each pain produced immediately.
Identify each pleasure produced after the first, due to fecundity.
Identify each pain produced after the first, due to purity/impurity.
Sum up all pleasures and all pains to get the individual’s net result.
Then for the community:
Determine how many people are affected.
For each person, repeat the process above.
Create totals for:
the good tendency (overall pleasure)
the bad tendency (overall pain)
Take the balance:
If pleasure > pain → good tendency
If pain > pleasure → evil tendency
VI. Practical Note
Bentham admits the full calculation can’t always be done precisely.
But legislators should still aim to approximate it as closely as possible.
The closer the calculation, the closer we get to accurate moral judgment.
VII. Clarifying Terms (Good vs. Evil)
The same measurement applies no matter what terms people use.
Pleasure can be called:
good,
profit, advantage, benefit, happiness, etc.
Pain can be called:
evil,
mischief, loss, unhappiness, inconvenience, etc.
Bentham basically says:
Different words, same reality — pleasure is good; pain is evil.
VIII. Why This Isn’t a New or Weird Idea
Bentham argues this method aligns with everyday reasoning:
Property value, for example, depends on:
pleasures it can bring,
pains it can prevent,
certainty of possession,
duration,
remoteness, etc.
People already judge things this way in real life.
Measuring feelings is natural and practical — we just don’t always name the process.
He closes by saying:
This covers pleasure and pain in general — next, he will discuss specific kinds.
📘 CHAPTER V — Pleasures and Pains, Their Kinds
Bentham now classifies all the basic types of pleasures and pains humans experience.
I. General Framework
Both pleasures and pains can be grouped into “interesting perceptions.”
They can be:
Simple (cannot be broken down further)
Complex (made of multiple simple ones)
Whether a feeling is considered one pleasure or several depends on:
the cause producing them,
and whether they arise all at once from the same source (then counted as one).
II. List of Simple Pleasures (14 Types)
Bentham lists 14 kinds of pleasures human beings can experience:
Pleasures of sense
Pleasures of wealth
Pleasures of skill
Pleasures of amity (friendship, affection)
Pleasures of a good name (reputation, social approval)
Pleasures of power
Pleasures of piety (religious belief & divine favor)
Pleasures of benevolence
Pleasures of malevolence
Pleasures of memory
Pleasures of imagination
Pleasures of expectation
Pleasures dependent on association
Pleasures of relief (from removal of pain)
III. List of Simple Pains (12 Types)
Parallel to pleasures, Bentham identifies 12 simple pains:
Pains of privation
Pains of the senses
Pains of awkwardness
Pains of enmity
Pains of an ill name
Pains of piety
Pains of benevolence
Pains of malevolence
Pains of the memory
Pains of the imagination
Pains of expectation
Pains dependent on association
IV. Pleasures of Sense (Detailed Breakdown)
These are the most basic bodily pleasures.
Pleasures of taste/palatability
Includes pleasures of satisfying hunger or thirst.
Pleasure of intoxication
The enjoyable effects of consuming alcohol or similar substances.
Pleasures of smell
Enjoyment from pleasant scents.
Pleasures of touch
Includes physical comfort or tactile enjoyment.
Pleasures of hearing
Independent of associations (i.e., pure sound pleasure).
Pleasures of sight
Enjoyment from seeing objects or colors.
Pleasures of novelty
Enjoyment from curiosity or new experiences.
Pleasure of sexual sense
Sexual enjoyment.
Pleasure of health / vigour
The energetic, positive feeling of full health.
V. Pleasures of Wealth
Pleasure derived from having or acquiring items that provide enjoyment or security.
Two forms:
Pleasure of gain (acquisition)
Pleasure of possession
VI. Pleasures of Skill
Pleasure from exercising a learned skill effectively.
Pleasure comes from:
mastering a task,
being capable of applying learned techniques.
VII. Pleasures of Amity (Friendship)
Pleasures from:
being liked by others,
being on good terms with people,
gaining goodwill and spontaneous kindness.
VIII. Pleasures of a Good Name (Reputation)
The pleasure from believing others think well of you.
Includes:
love,
esteem,
social respect.
Also called:
pleasures of honour,
pleasures from the moral sanction.
IX. Pleasures of Power
Pleasure from influencing others through:
their hopes,
their fears,
or the desire to please.
X. Pleasures of Piety
Pleasure from believing you have the approval of God or a divine being.
Based on:
faith,
religious sentiment,
expectations of divine reward (in this life or the next).
XI. Pleasures of Benevolence
Pleasure from seeing others experience pleasure.
Directed toward:
God,
humans,
animals.
XII. Pleasures of Malevolence
Pleasure from seeing others suffer.
Directed toward:
humans,
animals.
Also called:
pleasures of antipathy,
irascible appetites,
or dissocial affections.
XIII. Pleasures of Memory
Pleasure from recalling past pleasures.
Includes recalling:
exact details,
circumstances,
order of events.
XIV. Pleasures of Imagination
Pleasure from imagining pleasures:
suggested by memory,
placed in a different order,
or altered by new circumstances.
Can refer to:
past,
present,
or future.
XV. Pleasures of Expectation
Pleasure from contemplating a future pleasure.
Requires:
belief or expectation that it will occur.
XVI. Pleasures of Association
Pleasure from objects or events that remind us of pleasure, even if not pleasurable themselves.
Examples:
a game of chess → associated with skill,
gambling → associated with wealth or power,
luck → associated with acquisition.
XVII. Pleasures of Relief
Pleasure that comes when an ongoing pain suddenly stops.
This can produce:
memory delights,
imagination delights,
expectation pleasures.
XVIII. Pains of Privation
These are pains from the absence of pleasure.
Three special kinds:
Pain of desire
Wanting something without expecting to get it.
Pain of disappointment
When you expected pleasure, but it suddenly vanishes.
Pain of regret
(1) Remembering a pleasure you once had and can’t regain.
(2) Imagining a pleasure you might have had, but circumstances prevented.
XIX. Pains of the Senses
Parallel to sensory pleasures:
Hunger, thirst
Taste-related pains (bad tastes)
Smell-related pains
Touch pains (unpleasant substances touching the skin)
Hearing pains (unpleasant sounds)
Sight pains (unpleasant images)
Pains from heat or cold
Pains of disease
Pains of bodily or mental exertion
XX. Pains of Awkwardness
Pain from:
failing at a task,
being unable to perform an activity properly,
struggling to use a tool or skill.
XXI. Pains of Enmity
Pain from believing others dislike you,
Or from believing someone holds ill-will against you.
📘 CHAPTER V — Pleasures and Pains, Their Kinds (Final Sections)
Sections XXIV–XXXIII
XXIV. Pains of an Ill Name
These are the pains that come from believing others think poorly of you.
Pain from being:
disrespected,
dishonored,
socially disapproved of,
held in low esteem.
Also called:
pains of ill repute,
pains of dishonour,
pains of the moral sanction (the opposite of the “pleasures of a good name”).
XXV. Pains of Piety
These come from believing you have offended God or a divine being.
Based on fear of:
divine displeasure,
divine punishment in this life or the next.
Also called:
pains of religion,
religious terrors (if the belief is mistaken or superstitious),
religious sanction pains.
XXVI. Pains of Benevolence
These arise from witnessing the suffering of others.
Pain from:
seeing others in distress,
sympathy/empathy,
benevolent or social affections.
Opposite of “pleasures of benevolence.”
XXVII. Pains of Malevolence
These arise from seeing others experience pleasure when you dislike them.
Pain from:
enemies being happy,
others succeeding or enjoying good fortune.
Also called:
pains of ill-will,
antipathy,
malevolent or dissocial affections.
XXVIII. Pains of the Memory
These pains can come from any other type of pain.
Pain from remembering:
past suffering,
past privation (loss),
missed pleasures.
Exact mirror opposite of pleasures of memory.
XXIX. Pains of the Imagination
Mirror of pleasures of imagination.
Pain from imagining:
future pains,
past pains rearranged in the mind,
hypothetical painful situations.
Can be based on:
any pain type,
either positive pains or privation.
XXX. Pains of Expectation
Future-oriented pain.
Pain from anticipating:
a coming suffering,
loss of a future pleasure,
uncertain approaching danger.
Also known as:
pains of apprehension.
XXXI. Pains of Association
Exactly parallel to the pleasures of association.
Pain from objects or events that remind you of pain, even if the object itself is neutral.
Example: a place that reminds you of an upsetting event.
XXXII. Extra-Regarding vs. Self-Regarding Pleasures and Pains
Bentham makes an important distinction:
Extra-regarding
Pleasures or pains that depend on the feelings of other people:
Benevolence (feels pleasure at others’ pleasure; pain at others’ pain)
Malevolence (feels pleasure at others’ pain; pain at others’ pleasure)
Self-regarding
Everything else:
All the other kinds of pleasures and pains relate only to oneself.
Only benevolence and malevolence are truly “other-regarding.”
XXXIII. Importance to Criminal Law
Bentham explains why all these categories matter legally:
Every offense involves some combination of:
destroying pleasures,
producing pains,
threatening future pleasures,
creating expectation of pain.
These impacts define:
the mischief of the offense,
the reason for punishing it,
the “profit” or motive behind committing it,
the kind of harm inflicted on others or society.
In short: understanding pleasure and pain lets lawmakers measure the harm of an action and the justification for punishment.