🇪🇺 AP EURO - Unit 2.3 (Reform Continues)

After Luther's 95 Theses and the Diet of Worms, uprisings occur in the Holy Roman Empire during 1524-1526 as peasants apply reform ideas to daily life (fairness, no serfdom, fair courts).
Luther initially supports reform for Christians but condemns the revolts as unchristian; German princes suppress the revolts to restore order.
By 1525-1526, estimates reach roughly 300000 peasants killed; princes unite private armies to crush dissidents; Luther loses popular legitimacy among common people.
Charles V faces a tough strategic choice; an awkward peace emerges: Protestants and Catholics remain within the empire, but local princes choose religion; taxes continue to fund the empire.
Luther marries Katharina von Bora in 1525; they have 6 children.
In 1537, Luther writes aggressively against Jews, a stance that later informs antisemitic currents used by others.
The end of Luther’s direct influence on the people sets the stage for future reform movements (Calvinism, Anglicanism) in the next units.

Ulrich Zwingli leads reform in Zurich, Switzerland, emphasizing scripture and a more autonomous form of Christianity without a new organized church.
Luther and Zwingli are not allies; Zwingli’s approach is less aggressive, but he still pushes for reform.
Zwingli dies in the Swiss civil war; the Swiss Reformation wanes after his death.

Anabaptists are noted as outliers and are briefly set aside in this lecture.
John Calvin rises as a major reformer from France, advancing a distinct Protestant movement called Calvinism.

Calvin moves from France to Geneva and establishes Calvinism as a formal movement.
Predestination: the elect are believed to be saved; God has predetermined who is saved; the Bible is interpreted to support this claim.
Early Calvinist practice emphasizes discipline and ascetic living (no gambling, no premarital sex, protection of moral order).
Calvinism becomes a major Protestant tradition, especially in the Netherlands and France (Huguenots); after Calvin’s death, Calvinism persists as a substantial force in Europe.

England remains Catholic initially; Luther’s ideas arrive and create pressure for reform.
Henry VIII seeks an annulment from Catherine of Aragon; pope refuses; Henry breaks with the Catholic Church and forms the Church of England (Anglican Church) with himself as the supreme head.
Dissolution of monasteries and seizure of church wealth consolidate royal authority and reshape English religion.
Catherine of Aragon is divorce; she is sent back to Spain.
Wives of Henry VIII (in order):
- Catherine of Aragon: divorce and return to Spain
- Anne Boleyn: marriage leads to Elizabeth; executed
- Jane Seymour: mother of Edward; dies
- Anne of Cleves: divorce
- Catherine Howard: executed for treason
- Catherine Parr: survives Henry
Edward VI (reign 1547-1553) continues Protestant reforms; he dies young (age around 16).
Mary I (Bloody Mary, reigned 1553-1558) restores Catholicism and persecutes Protestants, burning around 300 people at the stake.
Elizabeth I ascends afterward, consolidates a Protestant settlement and steers England toward a stable Anglican identity.

Key figures: Luther, Katharina von Bora, Zwingli, John Calvin, Henry VIII, Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr, Mary I, Elizabeth I.
Major developments: Peasant Revolts and suppression; Swiss reform; Calvinism's rise and spread; English Reformation and dissolution of monasteries; Protestant settlement in England.
Quick timeline anchors: 1524-1526 (Peasant Revolts); 1525 (Luther's marriage); 1533-34 (England’s break with Rome); 1547-53 (Edward VI); 1553-58 (Mary I); 1558+ (Elizabeth I).