Prof Ed 1
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
Learners are the center of instruction.
The American Psychology Association focuses on the learner/learning process and psychological factors applicable to all learners.
Four Factors:
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors (6 principles)
Motivational and Affective Factors (3 principles)
Developmental and Social Factors (3 principles)
Individual Difference Factors (3 principles)
A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
Nature of the Learning Process:
Learning is an intentional process utilizing information and experience.
Goals of the Learning Process:
Successful learners require support and guidance to acquire knowledge.
Construction of Knowledge:
Involves integrating new information in meaningful ways.
Strategic Thinking:
Involves creative thinking and reasoning to achieve learning goals.
Thinking About Thinking:
Utilizing Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) for selecting and monitoring learning processes to facilitate critical thinking.
Context of Learning:
Considers environmental factors such as culture, technology, and instructional practices.
B. Motivational and Affective Factors
Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning:
Motivation to learn is influenced by emotional states, beliefs, and interests.
Intrinsic Motivation to Learn:
Driven by interest, personal choice, and control.
Developmental Influences on Learning:
Takes into account physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains.
C. Developmental and Social Factors
Effects of Motivation on Effort:
Effort is unlikely without learner's motivation, except if there coercion.
Social Influences on Learning:
Social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communications impact learning.
D. Individual Differences Factors
Individual Differences in Learning:
Learners use different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning.
Learning and Diversity:
Differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are considered.
Standards and Assessment:
Involves setting appropriate standards and assessing learners through diagnostic process and outcome assessment.
Alexander and Murphy's Summary of 14 Principles (5 Areas)
The Knowledge Base:
Existing knowledge forms the foundation of future learning.
Strategic Processing Control:
Learners develop metacognitive skills to reflect on their thoughts.
Motivation and Effect:
Intrinsic motivation stems from wanting to learn, personal goals, and enjoyment of learning tasks.
Developmental and Individual Tasks:
Each individual has a unique combination of genetic and environmental factors.
Situation or Content:
Learning happens within the context of society and the individual.
Human Development: Meaning, Concepts, and Approaches
Two Approaches in Human Development:
Traditional Approach:
Assumes little or no change occurs during adulthood.
Life-Span Approach:
Developmental changes take place even in adulthood.
Characteristics of Human Development from a Life-Span Perspective (Paul Baltes)
Development is Lifelong:
Development continues throughout life.
Development is Plastic:
Potential for change exists throughout the lifespan.
Development is Multidimensional:
It is influenced by biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes (Santrock, 2002).
Biological Processes: Changes in an individual's physical nature.
Cognitive Processes: Changes in thought, intelligence, and language.
Socioemotional Processes: Changes in relationships, emotions, and personality.
Development is Contextual:
Responses are influenced by physical environment, historical context, social factors and cultural norms.
Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation:
Three goals of human development.
The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
Concept of Developmental Tasks (Robert Havighurst):
Tasks arise at certain life periods.
Successful achievement leads to happiness and success.
Failure leads to unhappiness and social disapproval.
Developmental Stages
Santrock's: 8 Stages
Havighurst's: 6 Stages (combines infancy and early childhood)
Santrock's 8 Developmental Stages with Developmental Tasks
Prenatal Period:
Single cell to organism with brain and behavioral capabilities.
Germinal
Embryonic
Fetal
Infancy:
18-24 months; extreme dependence on adults.
Psychological activities (language, symbolic thought, social learning).
Early Childhood:
5-6 years; preschool years to Grade 1.
Self-sufficiency, school readiness skills, play with peers.
Middle and Late Childhood:
6-11 years; elementary years.
Exposure to larger world, increased self-control, achievement-centered.
Adolescence:
10-12 years to 18-22 years.
Rapid physical change, independence and identity, more time outside.
Early Adulthood:
Late teens/early 20s to 30s.
Personal and economic independence, starting family, career development, selecting mate.
Middle Adulthood:
40 to 60 years old.
Expanding personal and social involvement, assisting new generation.
Late Adulthood:
60s and above.
Decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement.
Havighurst's 6 Developmental Stages with Developmental Tasks
Infancy and Early Childhood:
0-5 years.
Learning to walk, talk, acquiring concepts and language, readiness for reading.
Middle Childhood:
6-12 years.
Physical skills, getting along with peers, personal independence.
Adolescence:
13-18 years.
Emotional independence, marriage, economic career, responsible behavior.
Early Adulthood:
19-29 years.
Learning to live with a partner, starting a family/occupation.
Middle Adulthood:
30-60 years.
Helping teenage children, satisfactory career achievement.
Late Maturity:
61 and above.
Decreasing health, retirement.
Issues on Human Development
Nature versus Nurture
Continuity versus Discontinuity
Stability versus Change
1. Nature versus Nurture
Nature: Genetics/biology
Determinist view: Behavior determined by hereditary, inherited characteristics. Genes are blueprints for behavior, some present from birth.
Piaget: Children's thought processes change at pre-determined age-related stages.
Nurture: Interacting with environment
Determinist view: Behavior is the result of interactions with environment.
Behaviorist Theory: falls under nurture theories.
Behavior is often a result of the interaction between nature and nurture.
Supporting Approaches and Perspectives
Supporting Nature: Physiological help, individual difference, developmental.
Supporting Nurture: Social (e.g. behavior), behavioral.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity
Continuity Theory:
Changes occur throughout life along a smooth course (quantitative).
Discontinuity Theory:
People change abruptly (qualitative).
Theories of development divide child development into stages, indicating qualitative differences in behavior.
Different views exist about how psychological and physical development proceed.
3. Stability versus Change
Stability:
Personality traits are present during infancy and persist.
Change Theorist:
Personality is modified by interactions.
Freud emphasized the critical nature of early experiences for our development.
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
Founder: Sigmund Freud (Sigismund Schlomo Freud)
Born: May 6, 1856, in Freyberg Town, Czechia
Death: September 23, 1939, in Hampstead House
1881: Graduated from Medical Faculty, University of Vienna
1896: Sigmund Freud was officially recognized.
1900: Released "Interpretation of Dreams"
Studied the development of personality and was a popular but controversial psychologist.
Erogenous Zone: Pleasure areas are focal points of a particular stage.
Fixation: If needs are not met, the individual gets "stuck" in that stage.
5 Psychosexual Stages of Development
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latent
Genital
1. Oral Stage
Birth to 1 year.
Activities: Mouth sucking, eating, chewing, and biting.
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
Oral Stage Fixations:
Oral Receptive: Smoking, overeating, drinking alcohol.
Oral Aggressive: Cursing, gossiping, biting nails.
2. Anal Stage
1 to 3 years.
Activities: Bowel movement (withholding/eliminating feces).
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
Anal Stage Fixations:
Anal Expulsive: Messy and disorganized.
Anal Retentive: Obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control.
3. Phallic Stage
3 to 6 years.
Activities: Interest through genitals, recognize what means to be a girl or a boy, Conflict to emotional attachment to one parent to another.
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Oedipus Complex: Boys are sexually attracted to their mother.
Electra Complex: Girls are sexually attracted to their father.
Phallic Stage Fixations:
Vanity
Sexual Deviances (Exhibitionism)
Weak or Confused Sexual Identity
4. Latent Stage
6 to Puberty.
Activities: Physical academic skills, sexual urges repressed, social group with same gender.
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
5. Genital Stage
Puberty to Death.
Activities: Sexual urges awaken towards opposite-sex peers.
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
Structures of Personality
Id
Ego
Super Ego
1. ID
Infancy stage formed.
Pleasure Principle: To gain gratification and avoid pain.
"Bad Boy of our Personality"
Not considering reality of the needs of others.
When ID wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast.
2. Ego
During toddler and preschool.
Reality Principle: Realistic and logical thinking.
"The Rational Level"
Aware that others also have needs to meet.
Decoding agent of the personality.
3. Super Ego
Conscience; influence on what is right or wrong.
Overview of Psychoanalysis:
The Conscious
The Unconscious
The Preconscious
1. The Conscious
Comprises a small part of who we are.
2. The Unconscious
Freud believed that what we go through in our lives influences our unconscious.
3. The Preconscious
Subconscious, child memory; it is not in our active conscious.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
Cognitive Development Theory
"Intelligence is what you use when you don't know what to do"
Basic Cognitive Concepts:
Schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
Equilibrium
1. Schema
Individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.
2. Assimilation
Process of fitting new experience into an existing created schema.
3. Accommodation
Process of creating new schema.
4. Equilibrium
Achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage
Pre-operational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
1. Sensorimotor Stage
Birth to 2 years.
Begins to interact in the environment.
Object Permanence: Knowledge that objects exist even out of sight.
2. Pre-operational Stage
2 to 7 years.
Begins to represent the world symbolically.
Symbolic Function: Ability to represent objects and events.
Egocentrism: Child sees only his point of view and thinks that everyone has the same point of view.
Centration: Child only focuses on one thing and excludes other aspects.
Irreversibility: Pre-operational children have the inability to reverse their thinking.
Animism: To attribute human-like traits to inanimate objects.
Transductive Reasoning: Neither inductive nor deductive.
3. Concrete Operational Stage
7 to 11 years.
Learn rules such as conservation.
Decentering: To perceive the different features of objects and situations.
Reversibility: Operations can be done in reverse.
Conservation: To know certain properties of objects even if there is a change in appearance (number, mass, volume, or area).
Seriation: Ability to arrange things in series based on dimension (weight, size, etc.).
4. Formal Operational Stage
11 years and beyond.
Can transcend concrete thinking and situation.
Hypothetical Reasoning: Come up with different hypotheses.
Analogical Reasoning: Apply the relationship from one instance to derive possible answers in similar problems.
Deductive Reasoning: To think logically by applying general rules to a particular situation.
The Teaching Profession
The Nature of Teaching
Education: "Educare" (Latin) - Act of breeding, bringing up.
Acting as another parent (Loco Parentis Principle).
Learning through teaching.
Teaching Methodology: Blended Learning
Blended Learning: Combination of face-to-face and online instruction.
Learning Management System (LMS): Technology platform.
Amorous Relationship: Exists when two individuals mutually and consensually understand the relationship to be romantic or sexual in nature.
Corporal Punishment: Act that inflicts any pain or harm upon a child's body through beating or spankings.
Article VIII - The Teacher and the Learners
Section 1: Not inflict corporal punishment on offending learners, nor make deductions from their ratings as a punishment.
Prohibited Acts:
Child abuse
Discrimination against children
Child exploitation
Violence against children in school
Corporal Punishment
Any analogous or similar acts
Bullying or peer abuse
Definitions of Teaching
G. Wells (1998): Teaching is a cluster of activities, including explaining, questioning, motivating, and keeping records of work.
Cohen (1988): Teaching is a practice of human improvement.
Teaching as Art and Science
Art (Talent):
Natural to human beings (humanities).
Prowess in public speaking and explaining.
Science (Skills):
Theoretical knowledge that can be learned.
Pedagogy: "Teaching how to teach".
Legal Foundations of Teaching in the Philippines
1987 Philippine Constitution - Article XIV
Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports.
Section 1: Right of all citizens to quality education at all levels.
Section 2:
(1.) Complete adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people.
(2.) Free public education in the elementary and high school levels. Elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age.
(3.) System of scholarship grants, subsidies, and other incentives available to deserving students in both public and private schools.
Related Laws as per Constitution
Republic Act 7610: Article XIV Section 2, Paragraph 2 - Act providing for stronger deterrence and special protection against child abuse, exploitation, and discrimination.
Republic Act 8545 (Amending R.A. 6728): Article XIV Section 2, Paragraph 3 - Expanded government assistance to students and teachers in private education.
Republic Act 10931: Article XIV Section 1, Paragraph 1 - Universal access to quality tertiary education act.
Republic Act 9163: Article XIV Section 2, Paragraph 5 - National Service Training Law.
Republic Act No. 7836: Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994 - Act to strengthen the Regulation and Supervision of the practice of teaching in the Philippines and prescribing a Licensure Examination for Teachers.
Republic Act No. 9293: Act Amending certain sections of Republic Act numbered Seventy-eight Hundred And Thirty-six (R.A. No. 7836), otherwise knowns as the "The Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994" July 2003.
Legal Definition of Teaching
R.A. 7836 (The Philippine Teacher Professionalization Act of 1994) defines teaching as the profession concerned primarily with classroom instruction at the elementary and secondary levels, in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the Department of Education, Culture, and Sports, whether on a part-time or full-time basis in private or public schools.
Basics of Teaching
Mandated by the curriculum (K to 12 Law: R.A. 10533, Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013)
Mandatory 1 year Kindergarten - R.A. 10157- Universal Kindergarten Law.
Who
Licensed Professional Teacher (LPT) (LET law: R.A. 7836, Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994) R.A. 9293 - requires 18 units of pedagogy for non-teacher education graduates to take the LET.
Where
Public and Private, Section 4, Article XIV of 1987 Philippine Constitution.
When
R.A. 7797 of 1994, Act to lengthen the School Days from 200 to not More than 220 Class Days.
How
Instruction also known as - Teaching.
How to Teach?
Personal Characteristics
Experience and Preparation
Context of Teaching
1. Personal Characteristics
Age
Family Background
Economic Status
Gender
Personality
Attitude
Civil Status
Culture
Religion
2. Experience and Preparation
Educational Background
Years in Teaching
Seminars Attended
Professional Development
3. Context of Teaching
Subject Handled
School Policies
Students Diversity
Community
School Facilities
Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers
Article XI - The Teacher and the Profession
Purpose of Education
Sociological Definition of Education
Education is the social institution responsible for the transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values with a formally organized structure (schools) in order to survive.
Principles
Purpose of Education
Transmission of knowledge
Privileged for a large portion of the population.
Contemporary Objective of Education
Development of human talent, for better citizenship.
Requirement of socio-economic growth.
Education is a right for all.
6 Major Manifest Functions of Education
Socialization
Social Control
Social Placement
Transmitting Culture
Promoting Social and Political Integration
As an agent of change
Seven Cardinal Principles of Education
Schooling had a larger purpose than just preparing students for colleges and universities.
Seven (7) Cardinal Principles of Education:
Health:
Health, nutrition, and physical education were instituted; includes AIDS, sex education, and alcohol/drug education.
Command of Fundamental Processes:
"Reading, writing, arithmetic" ability; basic literacy.
Worthy Home Membership:
Schools should prepare students to establish healthy, stable homes; includes "Home Economics".
Vocational Preparation:
Produce workers for the growing economy.
Citizenship:
Democracy depends on an educated citizenry; "maintain the peace in state".
Worthy Use of Leisure Time:
Schools prepare young people for a healthy lifestyle and physical activity.
Ethical Character:
"Right and wrong", "moral" concerns.
Modern Aims of Education - "How We Teach in Schools"
4 Pillars of Education
Learning to Know:
Cognitive tools required to better comprehend the world and its complexities.
Learning to Do:
Skills that enable individuals to effectively participate in the global economy.
Learning to Be:
Self-analytical and social skills to enable individuals to develop to their fullest psychosocial potential.
Learning to Live Together:
Values implicit within human rights, democratic principles, and intercultural understanding; to live in peace and harmony.
Philosophies of Teaching
Philosophy (Etymology)
Greek philia "love" and Sophia "wisdom" ((LOVE OF WISDOM ))
Search for broader knowledge and concepts.
Purpose of Philosophy
To understand ourselves, others, and the world together.
To understand others' ways of thinking.
Significance, meaning, value of human life.
Philosophical Inquiry (Branches of Philosophy)
Metaphysics: Nature of reality - What is the nature of reality?
Epistemology: Nature of knowledge - What is the nature of knowledge? How do we know?
Logic: Reasoning and arrangement - What is the correct order?
Axiology: Nature of ethics - What is good or bad?
Aesthetics: Art and Beauty - What is beautiful or not?
Philosophical Inquiry (In Relation to Teaching)
Metaphysics: Curriculum, truth
Epistemology: Knowing, methods
Logic: How the curriculum is organized
Axiology: Character, values
Aesthetics: Art, literature, self
Teaching Philosophy
Nature of learning (WHY, WHAT, HOW, WHOM).
Personal Teaching Philosophy helps you determine and shape your own educational philosophy.
Philosophical Ideologies (General Perspective)
Idealism:
Asserts that because the physical world is always changing, IDEAS are the only reliable form of reality.
Realism:
Features of the universe EXIST whether or not a human being is there to perceive them.
Pragmatism:
Rejects the idea of absolute, unchanging truth, instead asserting that truth is WHAT WORKS.
Basic Teaching Philosophies
Teacher-Centered (focuses on SUBJECT)
Perennialism
Essentialism
Student-Centered (focuses on SELF & SOCIETY)
Social Reconstructivism
Existentialism
Progressivism
1. Perennialism (emphasis on teachers)
Rationale to control emotions.
Human nature is consistent.
The Teacher "knows", and the student "shows".
2. Essentialism (emphasis on subject)
To teach mastery over a core set of "basic knowledge".
Drill, memorize, "know" the content.
Teacher is all-knowing and a disciplinarian controlling the curriculum and students.
3. Progressivism (emphasis on student experiences)
The student's world is the focus and starting point.
Learning: active, democratic, and social progress.
Teacher: facilitator and guide.
School: a reflection of the wider world.
4. Existentialism (emphasis on student individuality)
Experience of individuals and personal growth.
Personal awareness of existence as a free agent.
"Self-actualization".
5. Social Reconstructivism (emphasis on societal reform)
School: "agents of change".
Community-based learning, real problems.
Teachers: prime units of social and political change.
Summary of Emphases:
Perennialism > Emphasis on traditions (TEACHER CENTERED)
Essentialism > Emphasis on knowledge (SUBJECT CENTERED)
Progressivism > Emphasis on experiences (EXPERIENCE CENTERED)
Existentialism > Emphasis on student individuality (STUDENT CENTERED)
Social Constructivism > Emphasis on societal reform (SOCIETY CENTERED)
Psychological Perspective
Cognitivism
Behaviorism
Constructivism
Humanism
1. Cognitivism
Focus on the mind and how it works to explain how learning occurs.
A teacher's job is to help students develop thinking and remembering skills.
2. Behaviorism
Response to reinforcements.
Learning is a change in behavior.
3. Constructivism
Students "build" their knowledge through experiences.
Combining previous knowledge with current experiences.
4. Humanism
Focus on human potential.
Individuals control their own destiny.
Summary of Emphases:
COGNITIVISM > emphasis on student's mind.
BEHAVIORISM > emphasis on student's response to stimulus.
CONSTRUCTIVISM > emphasis on creating their own learning through experiences.
HUMANISM > emphasis on human potential.
The Act of Teaching - Strategic Nature of Teaching
Elements of Teaching
Learner
Teacher
Content
Concepts of Instruction
Teaching Approach
Teaching Strategy
Teaching Methodology
Teaching Technique
1. Teaching Approach
General, personal purpose, teaching philosophies.
2. Teaching Strategy
Specific, teacher's individuality, personal style (voice, appearance, etc.).
3. Teaching Methodology
Step-by-step procedure, plan of action (lesson plan).
4. Teaching Technique
Specific, teaching methodology, personal style.
Steps in Teaching
Adequately explained
Visual aids
Concrete examples
Connecting to everyday life
Roles of Teacher
Actor
Writer
Manager
Developer
Salesperson
Professional
Subject Specialist
Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers
Article IV - The Teacher and the Profession
Section 1: Actively ensure that teaching is the noblest profession; manifest genuine enthusiasm.
Section 2: Uphold the highest possible standards of quality education; shall be at their best at all times and in the practice of their profession.
Article VIII - The Teacher and Learners
Section 2: Recognize that the interest and welfare of learners is of paramount importance.
Section 3: No prejudice or discrimination against any learner.
Article IX - The Teacher and Parents
Section 1: Establish and maintain cordial relations with parents.
Section 2: Inform parents through proper authorities of the progress and deficiencies of learners; promote parent cooperation.
Article X - The Teacher and the Business
Section 1: The right to engage, directly or indirectly, in income generation, provided it does not relate to or adversely affect their work.
Article III - The Teacher and the State
Section 3: Teachers shall be physically, mentally, and morally fit.
Events of Instruction (Robert Gagne)
Create a 9-step process of events of instruction.
Systematic instructional design process.
Behaviorist approach to learning.
Steps on Events of Instruction
Gain attention (hook)
Inform learners of objectives
Stimulate recall of prior learning
Present the content
Provide "learning guidance"
Elicit performance (practice)
Provide feedback
Assess performance
Enhance retention and transfer
1. Gain Attention (Hook)
To obtain the student's attention so that they will listen and watch.
Learners are ready to learn.
2. Inform Learners of Objectives
Help them understand what they are to learn during the course.
Organize their thoughts.
3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning
To make sense of new information.
4. Present the Content
Strategies to present and cue lesson content to provide more effective, efficient instruction.
5. Provide "Learning Guidance"
Instructions on how to learn such as guided activities.
Advise students of strategies.
6. Elicit Performance (Practice)
Allows students to apply knowledge and skills learned.
7. Provide Feedback
Correcting isolated problems rather than having little idea of where problems and inconsistencies in learning are occurring.
Assess and facilitate learning.
8. Assess Performance
See content areas that they have not mastered.
9. Enhance Retention and Transfer to the Job
Apply information to personal contexts.
Research Findings and Tips in the Classroom (UNESCO)
Teaching (Book) by Jere Brophy
This booklet is a synthesis of principles of effective teaching, covering aspects of curriculum, instruction, assessment, and classroom organization.
E-book Structure
I. Main Topic: Focuses on topics affecting the act or practice of teaching.
II. Research Findings: Focuses on pieces of evidence related to the topic, might include research problems and conclusions.
III. In the Classroom: Recommended classroom and act of teaching activities, including tips and suggestions for practicing or future teachers.
Teaching by (Jere Brophy)
A supportive classroom climate
Opportunity to learn
Curricular alignment
Establishing learning orientations
Coherent content
Thoughtful discourse
Practice and application activities
Scaffolding student's task engagement
Strategy teaching
Co-operative learning
Goal-oriented assessment
Achievement expectations
The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers
August 11, 20