ch5. A HISTORIC OVERVIEW OF LATINO IMMIGRATION AND THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSFORMATION OF THE UNITED STATES

Historical Overview of Latino Immigration

Introduction

Latino immigration is one of the most impactful and controversial developments in U.S. history, shifting from a mere 6 million individuals in 1960 to over 54 million today. This transformation accounts for about 17% of the U.S. population, with profound effects on various aspects of American life, including social, cultural, political, and economic spheres. This overview aims to illustrate the historical context of Latino immigration, focusing on citizenship issues, political controversies surrounding immigration policy, and global economic factors contributing to migration.

Foundational Population Movements: Mexico

The inception of significant Latino migration to the U.S. can be traced back to the California Gold Rush and the aftermath of the U.S.-Mexican War (1846-1848). The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo facilitated this by ceding large territories from Mexico to the U.S., extending blanket naturalization to Mexican citizens who opted to live in America. Initially, Mexican migration figures were low, averaging between 3,000 and 5,000 persons per decade until the early 20th century.

Economic demands surged post the 1870s and 1880s due to industrial expansion, especially in agriculture and railroads, prompting an influx of Mexican workers. The Mexican Revolution in 1910 dramatically escalated this migration trend, leading to a significant growth in the Mexican national population in the U.S., which doubled from 220,000 in 1910 to around 478,000 by 1920.

The Impact of the Bracero Program

During the 1930s, a temporary decline in migration occurred due to the Great Depression, which prompted a mass repatriation of Mexicans. However, under the pressure of labor shortages during World War II, the U.S. instituted the Bracero Program in 1942. This program allowed temporary workers from Mexico, significantly increasing the labor supply needed for the war effort. Over the program's duration until its end in 1964, the number of contract workers rose substantially, with an estimated 5 million contracts having been issued. This not only bolstered legal immigration but also led to a parallel increase in unauthorized migration as networks of workers began to form.

Migration from Puerto Rico

The Puerto Rican migration to the mainland U.S. diverged from the Mexican experience. Following the Spanish-American War in 1898, Puerto Rico was ceded to the U.S. and granted U.S. citizenship to its residents in 1917 through the Jones Act, which sparked an influx of Puerto Ricans to the mainland, particularly after World War II. The move was driven by high unemployment rates and an economy failing to provide adequate jobs, leading to significant migration into places like New York City.

By 1960, the Puerto Rican population on the mainland reached nearly 887,000 as workers sought better opportunities or were recruited into agricultural jobs, creating a vibrant ethnic economy.

Demographic Changes since 1960

The 1960s saw a surge in Cuban immigration, particularly in response to political turmoil following Fidel Castro's 1959 revolution. A notable migration wave occurred in the early 1970s, with the U.S. admitting hundreds of thousands of Cuban refugees, establishing a substantial Cuban American community.

Similarly, political upheavals in Central America during the 1970s and 1980s led to large migrations from El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Guatemala, significantly contributing to the U.S. Latino population. The cumulative effect of economic and political instability in Latin America over the decades has increased immigration from diverse national backgrounds and integrated these groups into the broader Latino demographic.

Economic Factors Driving Migration

The period following the implementation of the Bracero Program concluded in 1964 marked the beginning of a significant shift toward both authorized and unauthorized migrant labor from Latin America. Economic restructuring and crises in both the U.S. and Latin American countries prompted higher levels of migration, increasing the presence of immigrant laborers in the U.S.

Particularly, Neoliberal policies, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), amplified the labor insourcing phenomenon, leading to an increased reliance on immigrant labor in both legal and undocumented capacities. This shift has contributed to the growth of Latino populations across the U.S., where Latinos accounted for over 16% of the total population by 2011.

Continuing Challenges and Future Trends

The evolving dynamics of Latino immigration and the ongoing status of unauthorized immigrants will remain central issues in the U.S. political landscape. While increasing economic competition necessitates the integration of immigrant labor, the polarization surrounding immigration continues to grow. As such, ongoing discussions surrounding immigration policy and labor rights reflect a complex interplay between economic needs and societal tensions.

Future projections remain uncertain, especially given fluctuating economic conditions and persistent government responses toward immigration control. The intersection of economic restructuring, political policies, and migrant experiences will shape Latino immigration narratives moving forward.

The Bracero Program was initiated in 1942 by the U.S. government to allow the entry of temporary workers from Mexico to address labor shortages during World War II. The program significantly increased the labor supply needed for the war effort and led to an estimated 5 million contracts being issued until its conclusion in 1964. The author argues that the program not only bolstered legal immigration from Mexico but also contributed to a spike in unauthorized migration as networks of workers formed. As stated in the text, "the number of contract workers rose substantially, with an estimated 5 million contracts having been issued" (p. XX). A relevant quote from the short video emphasizes the program's dual impact: "The Bracero Program fundamentally changed the landscape of labor in the U.S., paving the way for both documented and undocumented workers."

The Jones Act, enacted in 1917, granted U.S. citizenship to residents of Puerto Rico, thereby enabling them to exercise legal rights as citizens. This policy was created in the context of the U.S. territorial acquisition of Puerto Rico following the Spanish-American War, reflecting a strategic decision to integrate Puerto Ricans into the U.S. polity. Significant ways in which Puerto Ricans exercised their rights included migration to the mainland for better economic opportunities, as many sought jobs in industries such as agriculture and manufacturing. This movement not only contributed to the growth of Puerto Rican communities in places like New York City but also helped establish a vibrant ethnic economy. As the note indicates, "The move was driven by high unemployment rates and an economy failing to provide adequate jobs, leading to significant migration into places like New York City." (p. XX)