Azerbaijan within the Arab Caliphate
The Arab Invasions of Southern Azerbaijan under the Early Caliphs
The Arab conquests began during the reign of the first caliphs under the banner of Islam, with the stated objective of spreading the new religion and bringing those described as "infidels" to the "true, correct path." In 633, during the reign of Caliph Abu Bakr (), Arab troops initiated attacks on the Sassanid Empire after capturing the territories of Iraq and Sham (Syria). During this period, the state of Albania was a dependency of the Sassanid Empire. Consequently, the son of the Albanian ruler Varaz Grigor, Javanshir, was sent to assist the Sassanids with his troops. In 636, Javanshir fought bravely in the Battle of Kadisiyya (Qadisiyyah), but the Sassanid forces were ultimately defeated. In recognition of the heroism he displayed during the battle, the last Sassanid Shah, Yazdegerd III, presented Javanshir with a gold belt and a sword with a gold handle. In 637, Javanshir participated in the defense of Madain (Ctesiphon), the Sassanid capital. However, seeing that continued resistance was futile, he chose to return to Albania.
The Arab Advance into Southern Azerbaijan and the Treaty of Ardabil
The systematic Arab military push into Southern Azerbaijan began in 639 when Arab troops captured Qazvin, which served as a gateway to the occupation of other regions in Southern Azerbaijan. By 642, after seizing Nahavand and Hamadan, the Arab forces gained significantly expanded opportunities to attack the Sassanid Caspian regions and Azerbaijani territories. In 643, Arab troops officially entered the territory of Azerbaijan. Near the Carmidan (Jarmidan) mountain in the vicinity of Ardabil, a decisive battle took place where the Arabs defeated Isfandiyar, the Sassanid Marzban (governor) of Azerbaijan, effectively subordinating Southern Azerbaijan. Following this victory, Isfandiyar was compelled to sign a peace treaty with the Arabs in Ardabil in 643.
The terms of the 643 Ardabil Peace Treaty between Isfandiyar and the Arab forces included the following three primary conditions: 1. The population of Azerbaijan was required to pay the jizya (poll tax) according to their means. 2. Certain groups, specifically women, children, the sick, and hermits/ascetics, were exempted from the jizya. 3. The Arabs committed themselves to a policy of non-interference regarding the property, religious communities, and legal codes of the local population. However, shortly after the Arab forces departed Ardabil, the local population rose in rebellion. This uprising was eventually suppressed between 644 and 645 by troops sent to Azerbaijan by Caliph Osman, who succeeded in restoring the previous treaty. Thus, following these initial Arab campaigns, the southern part of Azerbaijan, known as Adurbadagan, was incorporated into the Caliphate.
Arab Military Operations in Northern Azerbaijan (Arran)
The victory at the Battle of Carmidan in 643 opened the path for the Arabs toward the north, into Albania and the Caucasus. The Arab army launched campaigns targeting Mughan, Shirvan, and Derbend. In Mughan, the Arabs encountered fierce resistance from the local population. In 644, according to a treaty signed after this resistance, the people of Mughan accepted Arab authority. However, there is a contradiction in historical textbooks, as some records suggest Mughan was only fully captured after a struggle lasting three years. The historian At-Tabari recorded the terms of the 644 treaty with the people of Mughan, noting that every individual who reached puberty was required to pay one dinar (gold coin) or its equivalent in value as jizya. Additionally, they were mandated to be sincere toward Muslims and provide one day and one night of hospitality (lodging and food) to Muslims.
Relations with Derbend and conflicts with the Khazar Khaganate
While the occupation was not yet complete, the Arabs were eager to capture Derbend, which they referred to as Bab al-Abwab ("The Gate of Gates"). In 643, the first Arab attempts to move north from Derbend proved unsuccessful. During the Battle of Balanjar, they were defeated by the Khazars and forced to retreat. Shahriyar, who was the Sassanid Marzban of the northern borders and the ruler of Derbend and Shirvan, eventually concluded a peace treaty with the Arab commander. The terms of Shahriyar's treaty specified that the local population must submit to the Arabs and pay taxes. However, by order of the Caliph, the people of Derbend were exempted from the jizya because they were responsible for defending the Derbend pass. In exchange for this tax exemption, the Derbend population was required to serve in the Caliphate's army and participate in battles against idolaters (pagans) and enemies of the Caliphate.
Despite the defeat against the Khazars during the initial 643-644 campaign, the Arabs successfully occupied Southern Azerbaijan and the western shores of the Caspian Sea up to Derbend. By 644, Tiflis was also included within the Caliphate. In 653, the Arabs launched a new campaign into Azerbaijan. During this expedition, the Arab army re-subjugated the Caspian plain regions. They attempted to move north from Derbend toward the capital of the Khazar Khaganate; however, in 653, in the Second Battle of Balanjar, they were once again defeated by the Khazars. Despite more than ten years of resistance, the northern part of Azerbaijan eventually became dependent on the Arab Caliphate.
Strategic Economic Shifts and Early Arab Administration
During this period, the Arabs sought to tilt their competition with the Byzantine Empire in their favor by implementing strategic economic changes. They closed the caravan routes leading from the eastern provinces to Asia Minor and redirected the main route of the Great Silk Road through Azerbaijan. The historians note several reasons why the Azerbaijani population showed less resistance to the Arabs compared to other regions. Firstly, the Arabs treated the population with relative kindness and benevolence. Secondly, during the initial campaigns, the Arab forces remained strictly faithful to the tenets and dogmas of Islam. In the early stages of their rule in Azerbaijan, the Arabs followed a policy characterized by limited interference: they largely restricted their demands to the collection of taxes and did not involve themselves deeply in the internal domestic life of the country.
The Reign and Policy of Javanshir in Albania
During the rule of Varaz Grigor (), his son Javanshir emerged as the first great ruler of Albania. In 642, Varaz Grigor brought Javanshir to power () to ensure the security of the country. According to the writings of Musa Kalankatli, Javanshir's rule extended from the borders of Iberia (Eastern Georgia - Kartli) to the Hun Gate (the Derbend pass) and down to the Aras River. Upon coming to power, Javanshir's first major action was to expel the Sassanid feudals who were invading Albania. He placed a strong emphasis on the development and beautification of the capital city, Barda. Furthermore, Javanshir was known for his patronage of the arts and sciences, providing protection and support to scholars and poets throughout his reign.