Political Systems, Federalism, and Participation Study Notes

Introduction to Political Systems

• Difference between Confederation and Unitary Political System
    - Unitary System
      - Centralized authority over states.
      - Examples include countries with a strong national government that dictates policies across all states.
    - Confederation
      - Alliance of states where the central government has limited power.
      - Power is retained by individual states.
      - Seen as one end of a spectrum with unitary on the opposite end and federalism in the middle.

Six Errors in Federalism

• State-Centered Federalism
    - National government has extremely limited power, as desired by the Founding Fathers.
    - States manage their own affairs with little interference from the federal government.
    - Closest to equality between state and central power, reflecting the hesitation of establishing a strong federal government post-Independence.
    - Emergence of the Bill of Rights showcases concerns over federal power.

• Dual Federalism
    - Reigns from the 1790s to the New Deal era.
    - Characterized by strict separation of powers between federal and state governments.
    - Involves significant historical events such as the Civil War, which necessitated a stronger federal government.
      - Legal amendments (13th, 14th, 15th) expanded federal authority.
    - Tension exists due to landmark cases like Dred Scott, which attempted to preserve states' rights while expanding federal powers with laws such as child labor restrictions and income tax challenges.

• National Supremacy Federalism
    - Period from 1819 to 1937 marked by a stronger federal government asserting authority over states.
    - Associated with significant Supreme Court cases, particularly concerning the establishment of a national bank and the national supremacy clause.
    - States attempted to nullify federal actions, but this led to a solidification of federal dominance.

• Cooperative Federalism
    - Developed in response to the New Deal, characterized by intermingled responsibilities among state and federal governments.
    - Known as “marble cake federalism” where states and federal authorities work together toward common goals.
    - Promoted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as a response to the Great Depression.
      - Led to establishment of laws like the National Labor Relations Act and national minimum wage.
    - Federal government primarily supports states rather than competing against them.

• New Federalism
    - Emerged after the Reagan administration, advocating a reduction of federal control and promoting states' rights.
    - Introduced principles of free-market capitalism, moving towards a system that aligns more with confederation.
    - Incorporation of earnings and commerce proving limits was prioritized.

• Current Trends in Federalism
    - The early 2000s displayed varying applications of federal and states' rights, with notable legislative actions during the administrations of George W. Bush and Barack Obama.
    - Dynamic alterations between enforcing federal authority and recognizing states’ rights.

Grants and Funding in Federalism

• Categorical Grants
    - Federal funds allocated to states for specific purposes with stringent regulations.
    - States must adhere to guidelines to receive funding.
    - Examples include transportation grants tied to road building and maintenance.

• Block Grants
    - Federal funds provided to states with fewer stringencies, allowing more discretion in spending.
    - Broader areas of spending, such as education, without specific conditions attached.

• Unfunded Mandates
    - Laws enacted by Congress that require states to implement policies without federal funding support.
    - States carry the financial burden of compliance without federal assistance.

• Earmarks
    - Federal funding allocated for specific projects in a state or district, often used maneuver politically to secure votes.
    - Earmarks are associated with individual interests or localized needs, incentivizing politicians to support certain legislation in exchange for funding assistance.

• Coercive Grants
    - Federal government can incentivize or pressure states through grants: a “carrot and stick” approach.
    - Financial rewards for meeting expectations or penalties through withheld funds for noncompliance or policy divergence.

Political Participation and Voting Rights

• Historical Voting Rights
    - Initial voting rights were limited to white male property owners aged 21 and above.
    - Expansion of the franchise occurred in phases:
      - Fifteenth Amendment (1870) allowed African American men to vote.
      - Nineteenth Amendment (1920) granted women the right to vote.
      - Indian Citizenship Act (1924) recognized Native Americans as citizens and granted voting rights.
      - Twenty-Third Amendment (1961) allowed residents of Washington, D.C. to vote in presidential elections.
      - Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971) lowered the voting age to 18 in response to youth fighting in the Vietnam War.

• Contemporary Disenfranchisement
    - Discussion on ongoing disenfranchisement of various groups, especially those with felony convictions.
    - Certain territories lack voting representation in Congress; states maintain the authority to regulate voting eligibility.
    - Issues remain surrounding the unequal access to voting based on legislation and control by states.