Untitled Flashcard Set

Here are the core notes for your requested AP Biology topics, streamlined for quick review.

Unit 2: Cell Structure & Function

  • 2.5 Membrane Transport:

    • Passive Transport: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration (down the gradient) without energy. Includes simple diffusion (small, nonpolar molecules) and facilitated diffusion (uses transport proteins for polar/charged molecules).

    • Active Transport: Requires ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient (low to high).

    • Bulk Transport: Endocytosis (bringing matter in via vesicles) and Exocytosis (exporting waste or proteins).

  • 2.7 Tonicity & Osmoregulation:

    • Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside; water leaves the cell (shriveling).

    • Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside; water enters the cell (swelling/bursting).

    • Isotonic: Equal concentration; no net water movement.

Unit 3: Cellular Energetics

  • 3.2 Enzyme Catalysis:

    • Enzymes lower the activation energy required for a reaction.

    • Substrates bind to the active site (highly specific shape/charge).

    • Denaturation occurs when environmental changes (pH, temp) break bonds, changing the enzyme's shape and making it non-functional.

  • 3.4 Cellular Energy:

    • Energy is coupled: Exergonic reactions (releasing energy) drive endergonic reactions (requiring energy).

    • Photosynthesis captures light to make sugars; Cellular Respiration breaks down sugars to produce ATP.

Unit 4: Cell Communication & Cell Cycle

  • 4.3 Signal Transduction:

    • Reception: Ligand binds to a receptor (e.g., G-protein coupled receptors).

    • Transduction: The signal is amplified via a "cascade" of relay molecules (like cyclic AMP or kinases).

    • Response: The cell performs a specific task, such as turning on a gene or activating an enzyme.

  • 4.4 Changes in Signal Transduction:

    • Any change in the shape of a receptor or relay protein (due to mutation or inhibitors) can block or over-activate the response, often leading to diseases like cancer or diabetes.

Unit 6: Gene Expression & Regulation

  • 6.1 DNA & RNA Structure:

    • Nucleotides consist of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base.

    • DNA is antiparallel ($5' \rightarrow 3'$ and $3' \rightarrow 5'$) and uses deoxyribose.

  • 6.3 Transcription & RNA Processing:

    • RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA from a DNA template.

    • Processing (Eukaryotes only): Introns (non-coding) are removed, exons are joined. A 5' cap and poly-A tail are added for protection and export.

  • 6.6 Gene Expression & Cell Specialization:

    • All cells in an organism have the same DNA. Specialization (e.g., a skin cell vs. a neuron) happens because different genes are "turned on" by specific transcription factors.

Unit 7: Natural Selection

  • 7.2 Natural Selection:

    • Requires variation, overproduction of offspring, and differential survival.

    • Fitness is measured by reproductive success (how many offspring survive to reproduce).

  • 7.5 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

    • A population is NOT evolving if it meets five conditions: No mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population, and no gene flow.

    • Equations: $p + q = 1$ (alleles) and $p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1$ (genotypes).

Unit 8: Ecology

  • 8.2 Energy Flow:

    • Only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next; the rest is lost as heat.

  • 8.5 Community Ecology:

    • Interactions include Competition (-/-), Predation/Herbivory (+/-), and Symbiosis (Mutualism +/+, Commensalism +/0, Parasitism +/-).

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Unit 3: Cellular Energetics

3.1 Overview of Metabolism:

  • Metabolism comprises all chemical reactions in an organism that maintain life, including catabolic (breaking down molecules for energy) and anabolic (building larger molecules from smaller ones) pathways.

3.2 Enzyme Catalysis:

  • Enzymes lower the activation energy required for a reaction.

  • Substrates bind to the active site (highly specific shape/charge).

  • Denaturation occurs when environmental changes (pH, temperature) break bonds, changing the enzyme's shape and making it non-functional.

3.3 Regulation of Enzymes:

  • Enzyme activity can be regulated via competitive and non-competitive inhibitors and allosteric sites.

  • Allosteric regulation can activate or inhibit enzyme activity through feedback mechanisms.

3.4 Cellular Energy:

  • Energy is coupled: Exergonic reactions (release energy) drive endergonic reactions (require energy).

  • Photosynthesis captures light energy to synthesize sugars; Cellular Respiration breaks down sugars to produce ATP.

3.5 ATP: The Energy Currency:

  • ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells, providing energy for cellular processes.

Unit 6: Gene Expression & Regulation

6.1 DNA & RNA Structure:

  • Nucleotides consist of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base.

  • DNA is antiparallel (5′→3′5' \rightarrow 3' and 3′→5′3' \rightarrow 5') and uses deoxyribose.

6.2 DNA Replication:

  • DNA replication is semiconservative; each strand serves as a template for a new strand.

6.3 Transcription & RNA Processing:

  • RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA from a DNA template.

  • Processing (Eukaryotes only): Introns (non-coding) are removed; exons are joined. A 5' cap and poly-A tail are added for protection and export.

6.4 Translation:

  • Ribosomes read mRNA sequences to assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains; tRNA molecules bring specific amino acids to the ribosome.

6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression:

  • Gene expression can be regulated at transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels.

6.6 Gene Expression & Cell Specialization:

  • All cells in an organism have the same DNA; specialization occurs because different genes are "turned on" by specific transcription factors.

Unit 7: Natural Selection

7.1 Evolutionary Principles:

  • Evolution explains the variety of life based on natural selection, genetic drift, mutations, and gene flow.

7.2 Natural Selection:

  • Requires variation, overproduction of offspring, and differential survival.

  • Fitness is measured by reproductive success (how many offspring survive to reproduce).

7.3 Adaptations:

  • Adaptations are traits that enhance an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment.

7.4 Speciation:

  • Speciation can occur through mechanisms like allopatric (geographical isolation) and sympatric (reproductive isolation) speciation.

7.5 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

  • A population is NOT evolving if it meets five conditions: No mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population, and no gene flow.

  • Equations: p+q=1p + q = 1 (alleles) and p2+2pq+q2=1p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 (genotypes).