Social Deviation and Social Work Practice
Defining Social Deviance
Deviance is formally recognized as behavior that violates expected social rules and norms. It is a departure from social expectations that shifts significantly based on the context of the society in which it occurs. Crucially, the definition of what is considered deviant changes over time as societal values evolve.
There are two primary approaches to viewing deviance: the Objectivist Approach and the Subjective Approach. The Objectivist Approach conceptualizes deviance as a norm violation that can be measured through specific indicators, such as the perceived harmfulness of the act or the strength of the norm being violated. Conversely, the Subjective Approach views deviance as a social definition or a matter of perception. In this view, deviance is dependent on an individual's or a group's interpretation of what is deviant or not.
Deviance is categorized into three specific types of behavior. Admired Behavior refers to deviance that is viewed as "good" or exemplary, despite departing from the norm. Odd Behavior involves actions that are frequently considered different from normal behavior but are not necessarily criminal. Bad Behavior refers to law-breaking or criminal acts that violate formal legal codes.
Structural Functionalism and the Functions of Deviance
Within the framework of Structural Functionalism, society is viewed as a complex system of interdependent parts working together to achieve equilibrium. This perspective posits that deviance is not merely a social ill but a necessary component that creates social cohesion.
Emile Durkheim and functionalist scholars identify four specific functions of deviance. First, deviance affirms cultural norms and values. Because deviant behavior is observable and subject to punishment, it reinforces for the rest of society what constitutes appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Second, deviance clarifies moral boundaries. By challenging the line between right and wrong, deviance helps society distinguish and redefine its moral landscape. Third, deviance promotes social unity. When a group reacts to deviance, it affirms the correctness of its own acts, fostering a "we-feeling" and solidarity. Finally, deviance promotes social change by encouraging the dominant society to consider and adopt alternative norms.
A structural-functionalist understanding suggests a cyclical process where deviants commit crimes, which creates public outrage and punishment. This reaction leads the majority of people to adhere to and accept moral guidelines and rules, thereby re-establishing social order.
Deviance in Legal and Political Contexts
Deviance often manifests as resistance to the status quo. An example of this is the revolution against Ferdinand Marcos' dictatorship in the Philippines. During a period of martial law characterized by suppressed freedoms, corruption, and human rights violations, ordinary citizens, religious groups, and students engaged in nonviolent protests. This deviation from expected authoritarian rule led to significant social change, including the restoration of democracy under President Corazon Aquino and the drafting of the 1987 Philippine Constitution to protect civil liberties.
In terms of formal social control, Republic Act No. 9165, also known as the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, defines drug-related activities as deviant behavior. The law imposes penalties to maintain social stability and reinforce societal norms. It aims to unite communities and government agencies against drug trafficking while also providing rehabilitation programs. These programs recognize that some deviants can be reintegrated into society as functional members.
Anomie Theory and Types of Suicide
Anomie Theory, a major theory in structural functionalism developed by Emile Durkheim, describes a state of "normlessness." Anomie occurs when individuals or groups go against socially accepted behavioral patterns, resulting in social instability. This theory emphasizes the role of culture in providing rules for living; deviance results when these structural drains occur or when social bonds diminish.
Durkheim classified four types of suicide based on the relationship between the individual and society. Egoistic suicide occurs when an individual is socially isolated or feels they have no place in society, often seen in self-centered persons lacking altruistic feelings. Altruistic suicide happens when integration is too high, and the individual and group are too intimate, such as in ritualistic suicides (e.g., hari-kari). Anomic suicide results from a sudden breakdown of social equilibrium, such as the period following unexpected bankruptcy or even winning the lottery. Fatalistic suicide is caused by overregulation in society, often seen in individuals like slaves or those in oppressive living conditions.
Statistical data highlights these theories in modern contexts. For instance, the Philippines saw a rise in suicide rates during the pandemic year, with anxiety-related concerns listed as a primary factor. In India, farmers' suicides provide a contemporary case study of anomic or fatalistic pressures; seven states (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu) account for of farming sector suicides. These are attributed to surging input costs for chemicals, seeds, and equipment, such as tractors, which have tripled the cost of wheat cultivation compared to .
Social Control and Deterrence Theories
Social Control Theory, associated with Travis Hirschi, assumes that people are naturally inclined to engage in criminal behavior unless institutions work together to control them. Deviance is viewed as a failure of social control. Hirschi identified four elements of social bonding that tie individuals to a conforming society:
Attachment: How much an individual cares about the opinions of others, such as spouses or children.
Commitment: What an individual has to lose, such as a job or reputation.
Involvement: The amount of time spent in legitimate activities (e.g., work, volunteering) that leaves no time for crime.
Belief: The extent to which an individual believes that obeying the law is the morally right thing to do.
Deterrence Theory consists of measures to discourage law violation by increasing the threat of penalties. It relies on three key factors: Severity (the punishment must be severe enough to outweigh the benefits of the crime), Certainty (the punishment must be guaranteed to occur), and Celerity (the punishment must be swift).
Relatedly, Social Disorganization Theory, developed by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, argues that crime in a neighborhood results from the weakening of traditional social bonds (family, community, and religion). This leads to a lack of social control, particularly in high-risk demographic areas with high proportions of blue-collar workers.
Strain Theory and Delinquent Subcultures
Strain Theory assumes that deviance results from a failure to achieve societal goals through legitimate means. Robert Merton's version emphasizes that success is valued more than playing by the rules, leading to "structural strains" when access to goals is blocked. Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory expands this to focus on negative emotions. He posits that strainful conditions (loss of positive stimuli like a job, or exposure to negative stimuli like abuse) create anger and frustration, which pressure the individual into corrective or deviant action.
Albert Cohen's Theory of Delinquent Subculture explains how working-class socialization combined with middle-class success standards leads to failure in the school system. This results in a loss of self-esteem and feelings of rejection, prompting some to drop out and associate with delinquent peers. Through "reaction formation," these individuals develop hostility toward middle-class standards and find an improved self-image within a gang context.
Conflict Theory and Feminist Perspectives
Conflict Theory, rooted in the work of Karl Marx, suggests that different groups in society compete over limited resources, and the dominant classes control the definition of deviance. Elite deviance often goes unpunished while petty crimes are harshly penalized. For example, in the Philippines, political figures like Ferdinand Marcos Jr., Sajid Ampatuan, Gloria Arroyo, and Joseph Estrada have faced charges for mass murder, corruption, or plunder, yet often maintain political careers or receive pardons. This contrasts with the struggle of workers against "contractualization" or "non-standard employment," which the International Labour Organization defines as work that deviates from full-time, indefinite relationships. Efforts to demand a national minimum wage of per day represent a challenge to these power structures.
Feminist Perspective uses conflict theory to examine gender inequalities. Radical Feminism identifies patriarchy as the root of oppression. Deviance here might include women killing abusive husbands (Battered Woman Syndrome, recognized in the case of People v. Marivic Genosa) or engaging in "survival crimes" like prostitution due to economic hardship. Liberal Feminism focuses on political and legal equality, such as the fight for the Divorce Bill or the Safe Spaces Act (Republic Act No. 11313), also known as the "Bawal Bastos Law," which criminalizes sexual harassment. Socialist and Marxist Feminism argue that patriarchy and capitalism are intertwined, leading to women's participation in labor strikes or armed rebellions like the New People's Army (NPA) to fight feudalism and imperialism.
Symbolic Interactionism and Labeling Theory
Symbolic Interactionism, attributed to George Herbert Mead, suggests that humans act based on assigned meanings developed through social interaction. Within this framework, deviance is a learned behavior. Howard Becker's Labeling Theory posits that people become criminals only when they are labeled as such and accept that label as their personal identity.
Edwin Lemert identified three levels of deviance. Primary Deviance involves norm violations that do not affect an individual's self-image. Secondary Deviance occurs when the individual's self-concept and behavior change after being labeled. If the label becomes the individual's chief characteristic, it is known as a Master Status or Career Deviance. Additionally, labeling can be Retrospective (interpreting past behavior in light of current deviance) or Projective (using a deviant identity to predict future actions).
Learning and Neutralization Theories
Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory proposes that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with intimate personal groups. His nine principles state that learning includes techniques, motives, and rationalizations. A person becomes delinquent when there is an "excess of definitions favorable to violation of law" over those unfavorable to it. This learning process varies in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
David Matza's Neutralization Theory describes five techniques individuals use to justify law-breaking:
Denial of Responsibility (“It’s not my fault”).
Denial of Injury (“No one got hurt”).
Denial of Victim (“They deserved it”).
Condemnation of the Condemners (“Everyone’s crooked”).
Appeal to Higher Loyalties (“I did it for a greater cause”).
Personality and Mental Disorders
A Personality Disorder is a long-term pattern of thoughts and behaviors that deviate from societal expectations. They are grouped into three clusters. Cluster A (Weird) includes Paranoid (distrustful), Schizoid (aloof/reclusive), and Schizotypal (awkward/bizarre behavior). Cluster B (Wild) includes Antisocial (manipulative/lacks empathy), Borderline (unstable relationships/self-harm), Histrionic (attention-seeking), and Narcissistic (inflated self-importance). Cluster C (Worried) includes Avoidant (hypersensitive to rejection), Dependent (clingy), and Obsessive-Compulsive (perfectionism/orderliness).
Psychotic Disorders involve symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech. Schizophrenia requires symptoms to persist for a period. Schizoaffective Disorder includes manic/hypomanic episodes along with psychosis, while Schizophreniform Disorder is characterized by symptoms lasting between and .
Anxiety Disorders involve uncontrollable fear in the absence of a threat. These include Generalized Anxiety Disorder (symptoms lasting less than in adults or in children), Separation Anxiety Disorder ( for adults; for children), Specific Phobias, Social Anxiety Disorder, and Agoraphobia. Bipolar Disorders cause shifts in mood between mania (racing thoughts, less sleep) and depression (extreme fatigue, sadness).
Eating Disorders include Anorexia Nervosa (restricting calories despite being underweight), Bulimia Nervosa (bingeing followed by purging), Pica (eating non-food items like dirt or chalk), Rumination Disorder (regurgitating and re-chewing food), and Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (avoidance based on texture or smell).
The Role of Social Work in Deviation
The causes of these behaviors and disorders are multifactorial, including genetics, early childhood trauma (neglect or abuse), environmental factors, and brain abnormalities. Treatment typically involves Psychotherapy (such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or Dialectical Behavior Therapy), medication (antidepressants, antipsychotics), and lifestyle changes.
A Social Worker’s role involves assessment and diagnosis support by gathering psychosocial history and referring clients to professionals. They provide psychosocial support and counseling, manage cases, coordinate services, and educate families. Most importantly, social workers advocate against stigma and promote public awareness to support the reintegration and well-being of individuals labeled as deviant.