American Imperialism

American Imperialism & the Spanish-American War (1865-1917)

Washington’s Warnings

• Washington's Farewell Address guided American foreign policy for over 100 years:
    - Quotation: "… steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world."

• Different interpretations of Washington's policy:
    - Some believed it meant a continuation of isolationism.
    - Others noted Washington's support for trade and recognized he did not advocate for complete isolation.

Imperialism

• The 1900s defined as the “Age of Imperialism”:
    - Many European nations expanded their empires through economic and political control over weaker nations.
    - Motivations:
      - Search for raw materials: Needed resources to fuel industrial growth.
      - Competition for markets: European powers sought to increase their influence in Asia and Africa.

Manifest Destiny Achieved

• In 1890, the U.S. Census declared the “frontier” was closed.
    - Historian Frederick Jackson Turner argued this closure threatened national identity.
    - Led to a new focus on expansion beyond American borders to seek new markets and resources.
      - This concept is known as expansionism.

A Sense of Mission

• American belief in a mission to civilize the “uncivilized”:
    - Spread of Christianity and “Western Civilization” was perceived as a duty.
    - Missionaries were proposed to teach Christian beliefs and Western culture, especially in Latin America.
    - This phenomenon was described as the “White Man’s Burden.”

Opening Japan

• In the mid-1800s, American merchants profited from trade with China, leading to desires to open trade with Japan.

• Japanese isolation from the West was a barrier to trade.
    - In 1853, President Millard Fillmore dispatched Commodore Mathew Perry to Japan to negotiate.

• Perry entered Tokyo Bay with four warships, urging Japan to open its ports to U.S. trade.

• After several months, the Treaty of Kanagawa was signed, resulting in:
    - Opening of two ports to American ships.
    - Ended Japanese isolationism.

Purchasing Alaska

• Secretary of State William H. Seward envisioned an American empire dominating the Caribbean, Central America, and the Pacific.
    - Advocated for a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

• In 1867, Seward purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million:
    - Alaska's territory size was twice that of Texas.
    - Initial criticism labeled the purchase “Seward’s Folly” as it was seen as a barren wasteland.
    - The discovery of gold in the 1890s and later oil, timber, and fish transformed perception, turning “Seward’s Icebox” into a valuable acquisition.

Hawaii

• The U.S. Navy and merchant ships required additional small islands in the Pacific for security.

• Christian missionaries arrived in Hawaii in the 1820s, leading to the establishment of large sugar plantations.
    - Labor was imported from Japan and China.

• Hawaiian Queen Liliuokalani attempted to reclaim economic control from American businessmen.
    - U.S. diplomat John Stevens orchestrated a Marine-assisted uprising that facilitated the annexation of Hawaii:
      - Treaty signed by President Benjamin Harrison in 1892.
      - Formally annexed in 1898; Hawaii achieved statehood in 1959.

Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan

• Mahan’s influential work, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, advocated for:
    - Strengthening and enlarging the U.S. Navy.
    - Argued that naval power is essential for protecting shipping and accessing world markets.
    - Suggested the U.S. required overseas colonies for ship supply and maintenance.

• By the early 1900s, the U.S. navy was powerful enough to support an expanded global role.

The Spanish-American War

The Cuban Rebellion

• Cubans sought an end to Spanish rule.

• Spain's defeat of a Cuban rebellion forced leader Jose Marti to flee to the U.S. for support.

• In 1895, Marti returned and led a new revolt, with many perishing.

• Rebels burned sugarcane fields to provoke Spanish withdrawal, which raised U.S. interests.

Spanish Retaliation

• The Spanish response included herding Cuban non-combatants into re-concentration camps to separate them from rebels.
    - High mortality rates due to starvation and disease.

• U.S. businessmen grew concerned about their investments and the proximity of unrest to the U.S.

• President Cleveland opposed U.S. intervention; however, President McKinley, who later took office, also aimed to keep the U.S. neutral.

“Yellow Journalism”

• By 1898, newspapers were crucial news sources in America.
    - Editors often sensationalized stories to attract readers; this practice is termed “Yellow Journalism.”
    - Notorious figures:
      - Joseph Pulitzer and William Hearst: both used yellow journalism to galvanize public support for war against Spain.

“Remember the Maine”

• Following rioting in Havana, President McKinley deployed the USS Maine to protect Americans and property.

• The ship exploded after three weeks in the harbor, killing approximately 260 sailors:
    - Consensus leaned toward a mine causing the sinking, although evidence remains inconclusive.

• The slogan “Remember The Maine” became a rallying cry for war.

• Congress recognized Cuban independence; on April 25, 1898, Congress declared war on Spain.

Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders

• Teddy Roosevelt resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy to lead the 1st U.S. Cavalry Regiment known as the “Rough Riders.”

• On July 1, the Rough Riders and the African American “Buffalo Soldiers” fought in the Battle of San Juan Hill, significantly diminishing Spanish resistance in Cuba.

“A Splendid Little War”

• The war lasted four months with about 400 American combat deaths.

• More than 2,000 U.S. soldiers died from tropical diseases such as yellow fever and malaria.

• Black soldiers endured discrimination and segregation while serving in a racially mixed conflict alongside Cuban rebels.

American Acquisitions Post-War

• The Treaty of Paris was signed on December 10, 1898, formally ending the war.
    - The Teller Amendment (pre-war) stated the U.S. would not annex Cuba, aiming to garner support for intervention.

• Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the U.S.

• The Philippines were surrendered to the U.S. for $20 million, remaining under American control until 1946.

Cuban Independence and the Platt Amendment

• In 1901, the U.S. granted Cuban independence contingent on the inclusion of the Platt Amendment in their constitution:
    - Prohibited Cuba from forming treaties with foreign nations.
    - Allowed the U.S. to maintain control of the naval base at Guantanamo Bay.
    - Gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs if independence was threatened.

War in the Pacific

• The Philippines served as the base for the Spanish fleet in the Pacific.

• U.S. Commodore George Dewey attacked the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.
    - The engagement resulted in American victory and control of the Philippines.

U.S. Imperialism in the Pacific

• Seward envisioned trade-driven expansion in Hawaii, facilitating the acquisition of territories like the Midway Islands in 1868 to serve as stopover points for ships.

Rivalries in China

• For Americans, the Pacific Islands functioned as steppingstones to China, a nation politically fragmented and economically weak, exposing it to foreign exploitation.

• By the late 1800s, Japan and European powers had claimed “Spheres of Influence” in China, creating concerns of the U.S. being squeezed out of lucrative markets.

Open Door Policy

• Secretary of State John Hay initiated the “Open Door Policy,” allowing all foreign nations to trade freely within one another's spheres of influence, effectively benefitting the U.S. the most.
    - Initial resistance from foreign nations existed, but this changed radically in 1899 when the Boxer Rebellion erupted.
      - The Boxers aimed to expel foreign influence, leading to international military intervention to break the siege in August 1900.

Diplomacies of the Three Progressive Presidents

Theodore Roosevelt’s Diplomacy

• TR's enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine:
    - Referred to as “Big Stick” or “Gunboat Diplomacy.”
    - Aimed to protect independence of Caribbean nations from internal rebellions or external takeover.
    - Maintained American imperialism in the Western Hemisphere.
    - Roosevelt utilized the U.S. Navy (nicknamed the “Great White Fleet”) to showcase American power worldwide.
    - Established the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.

Gentlemen’s Agreement

• An informal accord between the U.S. and Japan (1907-1908):
    - Initially ensured free immigration for Japanese workers to the U.S., but rising tensions led to Japan denying passports to laborers.
    - In exchange, San Francisco’s segregation order against Asian students was rescinded.
    - Did not stop those who found alternate routes to the U.S. via Canada or Mexico.

William Howard Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy

• Taft aimed to extend U.S. interests in Latin America and East Asia through guaranteed loans to foreign nations.
    - Intervention justified as protection for the Panama Canal.
    - Gained financial benefits for the U.S. while hindering foreign competition through threats of force (concept of “substituting dollars for bullets”).

Woodrow Wilson’s Moral Diplomacy

• Wilson’s approach emphasized democratic principles and moral progress:
    - Criticized TR and Taft, withdrawing support for American businesses in the Caribbean and China.
    - Promised independence to the Philippines when stable (actual independence granted in 1946).
    - Noteworthy examples of his intervention include Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and during the Mexican Revolution.
    - This philosophy is also termed “Missionary Diplomacy,” undergoing reevaluation in contemporary analysis.