Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory and Related Concepts

NCTRC Study Guide - Section One: Foundation Knowledge

Part A: Background - Human Growth and Development

Freud's Psychosexual Development Theory

Core Concept: Conflicts between id (natural impulses), super-ego (moral principle/society), and ego (reality principle). Unresolved conflicts can lead to fixation.

Five Stages:

1. Oral Stage (0-2 years)

  • Focus: Mouth (sucking, biting, swallowing)

  • Conflict: Weaning from mother's breast

  • Task: Developing trust through oral stimulation

  • Fixation: Overeating, smoking, nail biting, dependency issues

  • Note: Only id exists; ego/super-ego not yet developed

2. Anal Stage (2-3 years)

  • Focus: Bowel and bladder elimination

  • Conflict: Toilet training (id impulses vs. ego/super-ego)

  • Task: Learning control and independence

  • Fixation: Anal retentive (overly organized/clean) or difficulties controlling impulses

3. Phallic Stage (4-5 years)

  • Focus: Genitals

  • Conflict: Oedipus complex (boys) / Electra complex (girls)

  • Task: Identification with same-sex parent, understanding gender roles

  • Fixation: Vanity, recklessness, sexual identity confusion, jealousy, aggression

4. Latency Stage (6-puberty)

  • Focus: Sexual impulses dormant/repressed

  • Conflict: None (relatively calm period)

  • Task: Developing social skills, confidence, friendships

  • Activities: School, hobbies, same-sex friendships

  • Fixation: Usually none

5. Genital Stage (Puberty-adulthood)

  • Focus: Mature sexual interests

  • Conflict: Balancing sexual desires with social rules

  • Task: Building mature relationships, contributing to society

  • Success: Capacity for love, empathy, productive work

  • Note: Successful resolution of earlier stages enables healthy adult functioning

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Eight Stages:

1. Oral-Sensory (Birth-1 year)

  • Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust

  • Task: Learning to trust caregivers for basic needs

  • Positive: Security and trust

  • Negative: Fear and suspicion

2. Musculo-Anal (1-3 years)

  • Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

  • Task: Developing independence (toileting, walking, feeding)

  • Positive: Confidence and self-control

  • Negative: Self-doubt and shame

3. Locomotor-Genital (3-5 years)

  • Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt

  • Task: Trying new activities, asserting power through play

  • Positive: Initiative, leadership, purpose

  • Negative: Guilt or inhibition

4. Latency (6-11 years)

  • Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority

  • Task: Developing skills valued by society

  • Positive: Confidence in achieving goals

  • Negative: Feelings of inferiority or failure

5. Adolescence (12-18 years)

  • Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion

  • Task: Establishing personal identity ("Who am I?")

  • Positive: Stable sense of self

  • Negative: Confusion about role or future

6. Young Adulthood (19-35 years)

  • Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation

  • Task: Forming deep, meaningful relationships

  • Positive: Strong bonds and commitment

  • Negative: Loneliness or fear of intimacy

7. Adulthood (35-50 years)

  • Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation

  • Task: Contributing to society through work/family/community

  • Positive: Productivity and care for others

  • Negative: Self-absorption or stagnation

8. Maturity (50+ years)

  • Conflict: Integrity vs. Despair

  • Task: Reflecting on life with fulfillment

  • Positive: Wisdom, acceptance, satisfaction

  • Negative: Regret and despair

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Key Concepts:

  • Schemas: Categories of learning used to understand the world

  • Assimilation: Changing new information to fit existing schema (e.g., calling all four-legged animals "dog")

  • Accommodation: Modifying schema to incorporate new information (e.g., learning difference between dog and horse)

  • Active Learner: Children precipitate their own learning in response to new experiences

Four Stages:

1. Sensory-Motor (Birth-2 years)

  • Experience world through senses and movement

  • Differentiates self from objects

  • Develops object permanence (objects exist even when not visible)

  • Reflexes: Rooting, gazing, thumb sucking

  • Begins intentional actions (pulling string to move mobile)

  • Develops mobility (crawling, walking)

2. Pre-Operational (2-7 years)

  • Thinks symbolically

  • Uses language to represent objects

  • Pretend play (imaginary friends, superhero play)

  • Object representation (drawing pictures)

  • Egocentric: Difficulty taking others' viewpoints

  • Curious, asks many questions

  • Classifies by single features

3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years)

  • Thinks logically about concrete events

  • Better classification skills

  • Understands conservation (quantity remains same despite container changes)

  • Develops inductive logic

  • Less egocentric, understands others' viewpoints

  • Can reverse operations mentally

  • Orders objects in series by single dimension

4. Formal Operational (11+ years)

  • Abstract thinking ability

  • Scientific reasoning and hypothesis testing

  • Considers hypothetical situations and future

  • Develops sense of identity

  • Examines moral and social issues

  • Tests hypotheses systematically

Havighurst's Theory of Adult Development

Core Assertion: Development is continuous throughout lifespan in six stages (infancy, middle childhood, adolescence, early/middle/late adulthood)

Key Concepts:

  • Lifelong Learning: Development continues beyond childhood

  • Developmental Tasks: Specific challenges/skills to master at each stage

  • Teachable Moments: Critical times when individuals are ready to learn

Adult Stages:

Early Adulthood (19-30)

  • Selecting a partner, starting family

  • Managing home and finances

  • Starting career

  • Achieving independence and civic responsibility

Middle Adulthood (30-60)

  • Helping children become adults

  • Achieving career satisfaction

  • Adult social/civic roles

  • Adjusting to aging parents and physiological changes

Later Maturity (60+)

  • Adjusting to declining health and retirement

  • Coping with spouse's death

  • Finding new social roles

  • Suitable living arrangements

Theories of Human Behavior/Behavioral Change

Stress & Coping

Stress: Psychological/physiological state when environmental demands exceed personal resources

Cognitive Appraisal Process:

  • Primary Appraisal: Assess risk or threat

  • Secondary Appraisal: Evaluate response options

Coping: Active process to restore equilibrium and master stressor

Two Types of Coping:

  • Problem-focused: Change the situation

  • Emotion-focused: Manage feelings

Four Buffers (using recreation/leisure):

  1. Sense of competence

  2. Nature and extent of exercise

  3. Sense of purpose

  4. Leisure activity

Attribution Model

Definition: How people explain causes of success/failure

Two Dimensions:

  1. Stability: Is cause permanent? (stable/unstable)

  2. Locus of Control: Is cause internal or external?

Four Determinants:

  • Ability (stable-internal)

  • Effort (unstable-internal)

  • Task difficulty (stable-external)

  • Luck (unstable-external)

Learned Helplessness

Definition: Perceived lack of control over events after repeated exposure to uncontrollable situations

Characteristics:

  • Belief that situation is futile

  • Person stops trying to change things

  • Becomes dependent on others

  • Ceases exploring other behavioral options

Perceived Freedom

Definition: Feeling that actions are freely chosen, not forced by external circumstances

Requirements:

  • Sense of competence ("I can do this")

  • Absence of environmental constraints

  • Actions attributed to self, not external forces

Importance: Central to Leisure Ability Model (LAM)

Intrinsic Motivation

Definition: Internal drive to perform activity for personal satisfaction and enjoyment

Characteristics:

  • Doing something for yourself

  • Internal desires and satisfaction

  • Occurs when experiencing competence and self-determination

Locus of Control

Internal Locus:

  • Believe they control outcomes

  • Possess control to change

  • Good self-esteem

  • Take responsibility for decisions

  • Feel self-directed and motivated

External Locus:

  • Believe luck, environment, or powerful others control outcomes

  • Low self-esteem

  • Feelings of helplessness

  • "He made me do it"

Self-Efficacy Theory

Definition: Individual's belief in capability to complete task and reach goal

Influences:

  • Performance accomplishments (strongest influence)

  • Vicarious experiences

  • Persuasion

  • Physiological arousal

Impact: Determines effort expended and persistence when facing obstacles

Performance Accomplishments

Definition: Most powerful source of self-efficacy where client performs task and achieves desired outcome

Method: Repeated success through practice builds resilient sense of competence

Leisure Efficacy

Definition: Belief in possessing repertoire of skills necessary to independently meet own leisure needs and achieve personal goals

Experiential Learning Model

Definition: Making meaning from direct experience

Staged Learning: Dynamic Learning Experience (DLE)

Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle:

Four Stages:

  1. Concrete Experience (CE): Doing/feeling - encounter new situation

  2. Reflective Observation (RO): Watching - reflect on experience, consider perspectives

  3. Abstract Conceptualization (AC): Thinking - develop theories from reflections

  4. Active Experimentation (AE): Planning/applying - test theories in real situations

Four Learning Styles:

  • Diverging (Feeling + Watching): Imaginative, views situations from multiple angles

  • Assimilating (Watching + Thinking): Logic-focused, prefers structured approach

  • Converging (Thinking + Doing): Practical problem-solver, technical focus

  • Accommodating (Doing + Feeling): Hands-on, intuitive, enjoys new challenges

Neulinger's Theory of Leisure

Definition: Leisure as subjective state of mind determined by control and enjoyment

Key Factors:

  1. Perceived Freedom: Acting by choice, not force (most important)

  2. Motivation: Intrinsic (for fun) vs. Extrinsic (for reward)

Outcomes:

  • Pure Leisure: Total freedom + intrinsic motivation

  • Non-Leisure ("Job" State): Constrained + external motivation only

Goal: Increase choice and internal satisfaction to shift activities toward leisure state

Attitude Model

Progression:

  1. Beliefs: Information/facts held about subject

  2. Attitudes: Emotional reaction (favorable/unfavorable feeling)

  3. Intention: Plan or likelihood of performing behavior

  4. Behavior: Visible, consistent action

Key Takeaway: To change behavior, address underlying beliefs and attitudes first

Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

Developed: 1960s

Core: Intention is main factor determining behavior

Two Factors Determining Intention:

  1. Attitude: Personal belief that behavior produces beneficial outcome

  2. Subjective Norm: Whether important people support behavior and person's inclination to agree

Use: Basis for health education practices

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Developed: 1980s

Core: Builds on TRA by adding third indicator

Three Factors Determining Intention:

  1. Attitude

  2. Subjective Norm

  3. Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC): Belief in ability to perform behavior and control necessary conditions

Note: Intention doesn't necessarily result in action without PBC

Health Belief Model (HBM)

Developed: 1950s

Health Definition: Complete physical, mental, and social well-being (WHO); recognizes people with disabilities can be healthy

Four Key Beliefs for Action:

  1. Perceived Threat: Belief that condition is genuine threat

  2. Cues to Action: External prompts (doctor advice, campaigns)

  3. Self-Efficacy: Confidence in ability to carry out behavior

  4. Cost-Benefit Analysis: Benefits outweigh barriers

Goal: Take health action to avoid negative consequences

Transtheoretical Model/Stages of Change

Six Stages:

  1. Pre-contemplation: Client doesn't feel they have problem

    • Intervention: Awareness of problems

  2. Contemplation: Admits problem but unsure about changing

    • Intervention: Encourage specific plans

  3. Preparation/Commitment: Realizes need to change, gathers information

    • Intervention: Goal setting, awareness of positives vs. negatives

  4. Action: Follows plan for behavior change

    • Intervention: Feedback and support

  5. Maintenance: Sees benefits of new behaviors

    • Intervention: Help with relapse, continued feedback/support

  6. Termination: Can't imagine old behavior

    • Intervention: Help when needed, continued support

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

Developed: Mid-1980s (from Social Learning Theory)

Core: People learn by watching others

Behavior Influenced By:

  1. Characteristics of person

  2. Characteristics of behavior

  3. Environment

Reciprocal Determinism: Relationship among three characteristics

Change Most Likely When Person Has:

  • Self-efficacy: Confidence in ability

  • Behavioral capability: Skills and knowledge

  • Outcome expectance: Belief in beneficial outcome

Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT)

Popular: 1960s

Definitions:

  • Innovation: Idea/practice/object perceived as new

  • Diffusion: Process by which innovation spreads through social system over time

Five Key Factors:

  1. Characteristics of target population

  2. Environmental context for introduction

  3. Credibility and likability of agent promoting innovation

  4. Quantity of information communicated

  5. Quality of information communicated

Stage Theory of Adaptation

Based On: Kübler-Ross's Five Stages of Grief (1969)

Application: Emotional process when facing significant life change (disability, chronic illness)

Five Stages:

  1. Shock: Initial reaction - numbness, disbelief, overwhelm

  2. Defensive: Denial/minimization, attempts to maintain old life

  3. Depression/Mourning: Intense sadness over loss of abilities/identity

  4. Personal Questioning: Internal search for meaning ("Why me?")

  5. Adaptation, Change, Integration: Accept "new normal," restructure life, integrate condition into positive self

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Five Tiers (bottom to top):

  1. Subsistence (Physiological): Air, water, food, shelter, clothing, sleep

  2. Safety: Security, financial stability, health, protection from harm

  3. Love and Affection (Belongingness): Friendships, relationships, family, community

  4. Achievement (Esteem): Recognition, mastery, status, self-esteem, independence

  5. Self-Actualization: Personal growth, peak experiences, creative expression, fulfillment

Key: Lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs become motivators

Family Systems Theory

Core: Family as complex, integrated emotional unit (not independent individuals)

Principles:

  • Interdependence: Members interconnected; change in one affects all

  • Roles and Boundaries: Specific roles maintain stability but can be rigid

  • Homeostasis: System tries to maintain status quo

  • Circular Causality: Repetitive interaction cycles, not single cause

Application: Behavior change most successful when entire family system involved

The APIED Process

Definition: Five-step framework for systematic, high-quality care/services

Five Stages:

1. Assessment

  • Gather comprehensive data about client/situation/problem

  • Methods: Interviews, observations, record reviews

  • Understand needs, strengths, challenges

2. Planning

  • Establish specific goals and objectives

  • Develop detailed course of action

  • Outline strategies, interventions, resources

3. Implementation

  • Execute established plan

  • Deliver services to client/group

  • Carry out planned interventions

4. Evaluation

  • Review effectiveness of plan

  • Measure progress toward goals

  • Determine if modifications necessary

5. Documentation

  • Maintain meticulous records throughout all stages

  • Ensure accountability and continuity of care

  • Facilitate communication among team

  • Provide legal record

CTRS (Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist) Role

Definition: Uses recreation and activity-based interventions to help individuals with illnesses/disabilities improve functioning and quality of life

Core Role: Help clients overcome barriers to leisure participation and develop skills for daily living and community involvement

Settings: Hospitals, rehabilitation centers, long-term care facilities, community programs

Key Responsibilities (APIED Framework):

Assessment:

  • Conduct comprehensive assessments of needs, strengths, limitations, interests

  • Use interviews, observations, standardized tests

  • Gather data on physical, cognitive, social, emotional, leisure functioning

Planning:

  • Develop individualized treatment plans

  • Create specific, measurable goals and behavioral objectives

  • Select appropriate interventions

  • Make modifications (adaptive equipment, rule changes)

Implementation:

  • Facilitate individual/group interventions

  • Deliver programs: adaptive sports, arts/crafts, community outings, social skill groups

  • Use facilitation techniques and leadership skills

  • Help develop coping skills, confidence, abilities

Evaluation:

  • Monitor and evaluate progress toward goals

  • Analyze participation and responses

  • Ensure plan effectiveness

  • Make modifications as needed

Documentation:

  • Maintain meticulous records

  • Document assessment data, treatment plans, progress notes (SOAP notes), discharge summaries

  • Ensure continuity of care and accountability

Important Notes

Recreation Therapy: Not just fun and games - structured, goal-oriented process that empowers individuals by enhancing functional abilities, promoting meaningful engagement, and supporting recovery or health maintenance

Therapeutic Recreation: The field Recreational Therapy: The practice CTRS: Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist - the qualified provider

RT Process: Recreational therapist assists clients to achieve health protection and health promotion through systematic four-step process, employing purposeful, goal-directed interventions that produce recreational/leisure experiences leading to optimal health levels