The Age of Nationalism (1850-1914)

Following the revolutions of 1848, Western society moved towards a significant organizing principle known as nationalism.
Nationalism fostered mass identification with the nation-state and transformed territorial boundaries.
The triumph of nationalism was initially unpredictable; while a force since 1789, attempts to unify people based on ethnicity, language, history, and territory failed until 1914, when most Europeans resided in nation-states.
Nation-states varied in governance: from conservative authoritarianism to liberal republicanism, often improving citizen responsiveness through political enfranchisement and social benefits.
Nationalism saw a shift from liberal ideals to conservative and populist motives, with the rise of exclusionary policies against minorities, notably against Jews, driven by manipulated patriotism.

Napoleon III in France: Balancing popular and conservative forces in an authoritarian state.
Nation Building: Conflict in Italy, Germany, and the U.S. leading to strong nation-states.
Modernization in Russia and the Ottoman Empire: Examines steps taken towards modernization.
Domestic political trends post-1871: Emergence of the responsive national state.
Evolution of popular nationalism by 1900.
Growth of the socialist movement: Factors behind its popularity and its revolutionary nature.
Life shifts: Illustrates the changing relationship between states and citizens, emphasizing national identity.

Focus Question: How did Napoleon III reconcile popular and conservative forces?
First Presidency: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte gained support through universal male suffrage, appealing to perceptions of stability amidst fears of socialism.
Promoted national unity and economic aid through a powerful national leader rather than the existing corrupt parliament.
Louis Napoleon enacted authoritarian measures, including the illegitimate dismissal of the legislature in a coup d'état (1851), ultimately becoming Emperor (1852).

Economic growth characterized the Second Empire, with significant investments in infrastructure.
Workers began to see benefits, with the emperor granting rights to form unions in the 1860s, indicating a shift toward civic engagement.
Political maneuvering by Louis Napoleon to maintain authority against resentments from political opposition.

Italy Pre-1850: Fragmented state with competing regions, revived desire for unification through three approaches: democratic republic, papal leadership, and monarchy under Vittorio Emanuele II.
Key Players: Count Cavour worked towards unification using diplomacy, aligning with Napoleon III to counter Austria, illustrating the role of war in nation-building in Europe.
Garibaldi's Role: Elevated popular nationalism, leading military campaigns and aiding in the unification of the Kingdom of Italy alongside Cavour.

Outcome: Italy officially united in 1870 under a parliamentary monarchy, yet social stratification remained, with political rights limited to affluent classes.
Economy: Economic disparities between the industrializing north and agrarian south persisted, reflecting failures of complete integration.

Post-1848: Tensions rose between Austria and Prussia over dominance in the German Confederation.
Bismarck: Appointed as prime minister, he defied parliament and initiated military conflict with Denmark, leading to war with Austria (1866).
Austro-Prussian War: Resulted in the formation of the North German Confederation, setting the stage for German unification.

National unity fostered by Bismarck's leadership amid internal conflicts and rising socialist movements.
Significant period for the establishment of social welfare programs to address the needs of workers, though often viewed as tactics to dilute socialist support.

After 1871, socialism moderated as parties focused on practical reforms rather than revolution.
Emergence of strong socialist parties with mass support across Europe, segmenting into variations of reformist approaches and radical interpretations.

Dreyfus Affair: Illustrates growing tension between nationalism and emerging anti-Semitic attitudes in a context of national identity.
Zionism: Reaction to anti-Semitism advocating for re-establishment of a Jewish homeland, gaining support particularly in reactionary climates.

Growth of socialist parties illustrated a shift from revolutionary roots towards a focus on gradual reforms within parliament.
Marxism: Many parties retained Marxist ideologies but adapted to local contexts.
Rise of labor union movements reflected increasing activism among the working classes seeking rights and reforms.

Questions surrounding the growth of nationalism and its impacts on class structures and identity across Europe leading up to WWII.
Emphasis on the interactions between national and socialist movements, evolving from revolutionary fervor towards gradual integration into democratic frameworks.

Nationalism emerged as a powerful force shaping state and society in the 19th century.
Political changes in Europe, including socialism and national conflicts, set the stage for both cooperation and competition among rising states.
Nation-states complexly influenced individual identities and class structures, leading to significant socio-political transformations by 1914.

Compare and contrast the rise of nationalism in Italy and Germany during the 19th century.
Evaluate the impact of the revolutions of 1848 on the development of nationalism in Europe.
Discuss the significance of the Dreyfus Affair in relation to nationalism and anti-Semitism in late 19th-century Europe.
Analyze how Napoleon III's policies embodied the tensions between popular and conservative forces in France.
Assess the role of key figures such as Bismarck and Cavour in shaping national unification efforts in their respective countries.
Examine the interplay between nationalism and socialism in Europe between 1871 and 1914.
How did economic conditions influence the social and political changes associated with nationalism in the late 19th century?
To what extent did nationalism contribute to social divisions in Europe by 1914?