Unit 4 Part 1: Personality, Motivation, Emotion AP Psychology Study Outline

Unit 4 Part 1: Personality, Motivation, Emotion

AP Psychology Study Outline

Directions: Please use your assigned readings and the information presented in class to complete and turn-in this Study Outline prior to the unit test.   Think of this Study Outline as an organized set of notes that you will use to study for your unit test, final exams, and AP Test.  In order to receive full credit, you should include notes on all of the items that are explicitly prompted in the outline.  

Punctuation matters:

• Items in the outline that are followed by a question mark or a colon should be considered “prompts” that require a response

• Items in the outline that are not followed by  any punctuation are section headers and do not require a response

Some items will also be fill-in-the-blank.

Your outline should be completed in your handwriting using this document. 

Please note that the College Board’s topic numbers appear in parentheses after each underlined topic heading.  These numbers can sometimes be useful if you want to conduct an internet search for additional materials on the same topic.  (However, the College Board’s course outline is new this year, so it’s possible that there won’t be many online resources tagged to these numbers.)

Items with an asterisk (*) were heavily tested by the College Board in the past.

Introduction to Personality

• Personality:

• Personality psychology:

Psychodynamic Theory of Personality (4.4.A)

• Introduction

  • Modern psychodynamic theories ____________________ from Freud’s ___________________________ – his theory of personality and its associated treatment techniques.

• Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

  • Freud relied heavily on __________________________________ to develop his theories.

  • Psychoanalysis:

• A foundation of Freud’s theory was that the mind is mostly ______________________*

  • Freud believed that our ______________________________ awareness is the smaller part of our mind, like the visible part of an iceberg floating above the surface. 

  • Beneath the water’s surface is the larger ________________________________ mind. 

    • Some of this is in the ________________________________ area and can be retrieved into conscious awareness using psychoanalytic treatment techniques

    • But a large part of the unconscious mind contains our ______________________________ passions and thoughts that we ______________________ (forcibly block) from our consciousness because they would be too unsettling to acknowledge 

      • According to Freud, these feelings and ideas sometime gain _______________________________________ in ________________________ forms (ie, our beliefs, our daily habits, our upsetting symptoms)

• Freud’s Three Personality Structures*

  • Freud believed that human personality arises from a ______________________________ between our aggressive, pleasure-seeking biological urges and our internalized social/moral ideals.

  • Freud said we have three personality structures

    • Id*

      • A reservoir of __________________________ psychic energy that seeks to satisfy basic ____________________ and ________________________________________________________. Demands immediate gratification of desires.

    • Superego*

      • The _____________________________________ part of personality that functions as our “_____________________________________” (conscience). Focused on how we ________________ to behave.

    • Ego*

      • The _____________________________________“executive” part of personality that _____________________ the demands of the id, the superego, and ____________________. The ego seeks to satisfy the id’s impulses and the superego’s demands in ______________________________ ways that will be beneficial in the long-run.

• Ego Defense Mechanisms*

  • According to Freud, the competing forces of the id and superego can create _______________________________ for the ego.  Freud proposed that the ego reduces or redirects such anxiety through ______________________________________________, which are tactics that ____________________________________ distort reality.

  • Repression*

    • A defense mechanism that reduces anxiety by blocking impulses or _______________________________ from consciousness

    • According to Freud, repression underlies all other defense mechanisms

    • See table below for additional defense mechanisms* (each of these may be tested)

• Evaluating Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective

  • Recent research ___________________________________ many of Freud’s specific ideas

    • Childhood sexuality

      • His beliefs about childhood sexuality are NOT supported by modern research

    • Repression

      • Today’s researchers have found that repression is ___________, even in response to terrible trauma

  • Lack of Falsifiability*

    • Many aspects of Freud’s theories are ________ falsifiable. Unconscious desires are, by their nature, unknown to a person’s conscious mind.  Therefore, a therapist or researcher can interpret almost any behavior as evidence of an unconscious desire, and if the patient disagrees, their disagreement could be interpreted as denial or repression.  There is no way to prove these interpretations one way or the other because of the subjective nature of the unconscious as Freud conceived it.

  • But some aspects of Freud’s theory are enduring, including the importance of early childhood experiences, the importance of human sexuality, and the fact that much of our cognition takes place on an unconscious track of our mind. 

    • How is the modern view of the unconscious mind different from Freud’s view?

• Research also supports some of Freud’s defense mechanisms, including ___________________________ (ie, relates to false consensus effect) and __________________________ (ie, relates to cognitive dissonance)

• Modern Psychodynamic Theory*

  • The modern __________________________________ perspective is ______________________ from Freud’s psychoanalysis.  Psychodynamic theories of personality view human behavior as a dynamic _________________________ between the ___________________________ and the ___________________________. This perspective also emphasizes the importance of __________________________________ experiences in the development of personality.

  • Assessing the Unconscious

    • Projective test*:

• The idea here is that any hopes, desires, and fears that people describe are _______________________________ of their inner feelings and conflicts

• Critics argue:

• Two examples

  • Rorschach Inkblot Test*

    • The most _________________ used projective test, comprised of a standardized set of 10 ___________________

    • During the test, participants are shown the inkblots and asked to _______________________ what they see

    • Test-givers are trained to interpret responses

    • Controversial

      • May be __________________ and ___________________ depending on how it’s used

      • Critics argue that it is much less reliable than other available assessment measures

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)*

  • Projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through ___________________ they make up about ___________________________ scenes

  • Numerous studies indicate the TAT provides a ____________________ and __________________ map of people’s ____________________ motives. 

Humanistic Theory of Personality (4.4.B)

• Pioneering theorists are __________________________ and __________________________

• Humanistic theories (aka humanistic perspective)* view personality with a focus on our inherent potential for healthy personal _________________________, emphasizing our ____________________________ and our ______________________ qualities

• People have an innate drive toward ______________________________________________, which is the ongoing process of realizing one’s inherent potentials and capabilities

  • Rogers believed that humans have an innate drive toward self-actualization, which he called our ______________________________________________*

    • Self-actualization*:

• Congruence*

  • Rogers believed that people are naturally ________________ and that a person is born perfectly _________________________ between their real self and their ideal self

    • The _________________________ is one’s natural self; the person they are in their day-to-day lives

    • The _________________________  emerges as the result of interactions with significant people in an individual’s life, particularly parents. During these interactions, “___________________________________” are often conveyed

      • Conditions of worth: 

• According to Rogers, conditions of worth begin to separate the ideal self from the real self, which leads the two selves to become _______________________. Rogers believed that a dysfunctional _________________________________ is a symptom of significant incongruence between the real self and the ideal self

• For Rogers, an unhealthy state of incongruence could be resolved and a healthier personality could be achieved through exposure to unconditional positive regard

  • Unconditional positive regard (aka unconditional regard)*:

• Many of Rogers beliefs about unconditional positive regard and the ability of people to move themselves toward self-actualization have been incorporated into modern day _____________________________ approaches

• Evaluating Humanistic Theories of Personality

  • Strengths

    • Brought a much-needed ____________________ outlook to theories of personality

    • Viewed people as playing a more active __________________ role in their personality development (“free will”)

    • Less emphasis on the ______________; more emphasis on the __________________

    • Incorporated into many different types of _____________________________

    • Has been _____________________________ to many contexts where forming meaningful relationships is a goal, including education, child raising, and business/management

  • Weaknesses

    • Not based on empirical data or scientific observation

    • Some say it’s overly ____________________ about human nature and ________________ regarding out human capacity for ________________

• Techniques for Assessing Personality*

  • Studied people through _______________________ experiences and feelings, including questionnaires and interviews/conversations

Trait Theories of Personality (4.5.B)

• Trait theorists* focus on _______________________ and _______________________ personality characteristics that often determine how we think and behave across time and across situations

  • _______________________: a characteristic pattern of behavior, thoughts, and emotions

    • Usually assessed using “______________________” inventories and sometimes _______________ reports*

• ___________________________*: a statistical procedure that used heavily by trait theorists that examines a correlated cluster of test items (each of which probes a specific behavior) in order to determine if the cluster reflects a more basic factor (a trait)

  • Example: Imagine that people who describe themselves as outgoing also tend to say that they like excitement and practical jokes and dislike quiet reading. Such a statistically correlated cluster of behaviors reflects a basic factor/trait – extraversion.

• The Big Five Theory (aka the Five-Factor Model)*

  • Currently the most _____________________________ trait theory

  • The five factors exist along a _____________________________ described by ______________________________ at each extreme

  • See below for the five factors* (Mnemonic: OCEAN)

• The term _________________________ relates to a person’s emotional stability; a person who is _________________ neurotic is anxious, depressed, and easily stressed

• Research on the Big Five Theory

  • Big Five traits are ________________ in adulthood, apply across _____________________, and predict _____________ behavior

    • Personality continues to develop and change through early adolescence. After adolescence, as we age we become more ____________________________, ____________________________, and ______________________________________

  • The Big Five traits are influenced by _____________________

    • Heritability runs about ______ for each Big 5 dimension.  Many genes combine to influence traits. (Reminder:  __________________________ reflects the degree to which genes influence certain characteristics; specifically, it indicates how much of the variation among people in a population on a given trait is due to genetics)

    • Thus, research on trait theories supports the ______________________________ perspective that some aspects of personality are inherited

  • Big Five traits reliably ______________________ some important life outcomes.  

    • Example: Conscientiousness predicts better school performance and workplace success

• However, personality traits are ________ very predictive of behavior in a ______________________________________________. Rather, they are predictive of people’s ______________________ behavior across many situations

• Self-Report Personality Inventories*

  • Researchers investigating trait theories often use ______________________________________________________________________ that assess several traits at once

    • Typically, these are longer _____________________ questionnaires that consist of many close-ended statements  (“I make friends easily”) that the test-taker responds to with yes/no, true/false or agree/disagree (sometimes agree/disagree is on a Likert scale)  

  • Well-designed personality inventories tend to have ______________________ reliability and validity than projective tests, but they can be subject to ________________________________________________________ (respondents answering a certain way in order to project a positive image of themselves)

  • The ______________________________________________________________________ (MMPI)*  is the most _______________________ and ___________________________________________ self-report personality inventory

    • Although it was originally developed to identify emotional disorders, it also assesses personality traits

    • Its ____________________ is most clearly supported when it is used for clinical diagnosis and administered by clinical psychologists or psychiatrists

• Evaluating Trait Theories

  • Strengths: 

• Criticisms:

Social-Cognitive Theories of Personality (4.5.A)

• Builds on the work of behavioral theorists (Watson, Skinner, etc.)

  • The behavioral approach to personality emphasizes the effects of ___________________.  We are ________________________ to repeat certain behaviors, and we learn by ________________________ and ___________________________ others. Personality is the _________ of all of those learning events.

    • Took an _____________________ approach to personality. 

    • But did not take into account _________________________ or _____________________________ when explaining behavior

• Social-cognitive theorists focus on how we _________________________ with our environment.  They propose that a combination of ___________________________________ (“social”) and ________________________________ (“cognitive)) leads to the consistent patterns of behavior called personality*

• Reciprocal Determinism Model of Personality* (Bandura)

  • Three elements – a person’s _________________________ (actions and decisions), _______________________________ (external stimuli and influences), and ___________________________________________________ (cognitive and biological processes, emotions, and competencies) __________________________ with one another to determine behavior and personality

  • Example: Jed is naturally introverted ( ________________________________________ ) and is inclined to spend time alone ( _________________________________ ). Because he spends more time alone, he is less likely to be seen as social or to be invited to parties and events ( ______________________________________ ) and his lack of practice socializing may make him more uncomfortable when at social events, causing him to withdraw further.

• Internal Personal Factors: Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy

  • Self-concept*:

• According to reciprocal determinism, an individual’s self-concept shapes their behavior and environment, and is shaped by their behavior and the environment

• Example: Tom perceives himself as a skilled soccer player compared with others 

( ____________________ ), and so he plays soccer everyday at recess        

( __________________________ ). He scores lots of goals and other kids ask him to be on their teams (_______________________), thereby reinforcing his view of himself as a skilled soccer player ( ____________________ ).

• Both self-esteem and self-efficacy contribute to our self-concept

  • Self-esteem*:

• Individuals with ______________ self-esteem generally have a ____________________ view of themselves, which can influence their interactions with the environment and their behavior in ways that reinforce this positive self-perception

• Self-efficacy*:

• This is _______________________. A person can have high self-efficacy for one type of task and low self-efficacy for a different task

• The Importance of Situational Factors / Social-Cognitive Assessment Techniques*

  • Social-cognitive theorists recognize the power of the __________________________ to alter behavior 

  • Research shows that the best ______________________________ of future behavior is the person’s past behavior in _______________________ situations. 

  • If you don’t have clear and reliable data on past behavior in similar situations, then social-cognitive theorists recommend creating an assessment that realistically ___________________________ the situation

    • This idea is widely _______________________ and _______________________

    • Many professions use ____________________________ tasks instead of traditional “personality” tests to assess suitability for a job

Motivation (4.6)

• Definition of Motivation:

• Questions about “___________” behavior occurs are questions about motivation

• Instincts: Not much of a factor in human motivation*

  • Instinct*: 

• Examples of instincts in the animal world*:

• A few human behaviors resemble instincts:

• However, instincts ______________ explain most of the complex behaviors that humans engage in, and therefore do not provide much insight into human motivation*

• Theories of Motivation

  • No single theory fully explains human motivation, but each theory accounts for _______________ aspects of behavior

  • Drive-Reduction Theory*

    • Homeostasis*:

• Any imbalance in homeostasis creates a _________________________________________________________ (a basic biological need). This leads to the creation of a _____________________, which is an unpleasant psychological state of tension/arousal. This unpleasant state motivates us to engage in _______________________________________________; in other words, we are motivated to engage in behaviors that will reduce the drive and return our body to homeostasis*

• Example of hunger

  • Homeostasis is disturbed:  ________________________________________

  • A biological need is created: ____________________________

  • A drive is developed; urge to fill the need: _________________________

  • A behavior is performed: _________________________________________

  • Homeostasis is restored: _____________________________________

• Strengths and Weaknesses of Drive-Reduction Theory

  • Strengths:

• Weaknesses:

• Arousal Theory  (aka Optimal Arousal Theory)

  • Arousal:

• The Optimal Arousal Theory proposes that people and other animals are motivated to maintain ____________________ levels of arousal*

  • If the arousal level is _____________________, they will be overstimulated and unable to concentrate; this will make them motivated to reduce arousal, such as by relaxing

  • If the arousal level is _____________________, they will seek out action or something that stimulates them.

    • So, this theory helps explain phenomena like _________________________, which can be viewed as an attempt to increase arousal/stimulation

• Yerkes-Dodson Law*:

• Example of taking a test:

• Optimal level of arousal also differs depending on ________________________________

  • Most people need relatively lower levels of arousal to complete difficult or novel tasks that require concentration, but they need relatively higher levels of arousal to complete easy tasks

• Sensation-Seeking Theory of Motivation*

  • Focuses on a ___________________________________ defined by the search for experiences and feelings that are varied, novel, and intense. Individuals ___________ in the sensation-seeking trait are drawn to new, unusual, and thrilling experiences, often demonstrating a high tolerance for risk

  • Four components make up the trait

    • _______________________________________* involves a desire for outdoor activities and physically challenging pursuits that provide a high level of arousal (ie, extreme sports such as rock climbing)

    • _______________________________________* describes the pursuit of novel sensory or intellectual experiences through art, travel, music,

    • _______________________________________* refers to the tendency to seek release in social settings (ie, partying, social drinking, etc.)

    • _______________________________________________* is characterized by an aversion to repetition, routine, and predictable circumstances

• Self-Determination Theory*

  • Focuses on intrinsic motivations and extrinsic motivations

    • Intrinsic motivation*:

• Example:

• Extrinsic motivation*:

• Example:

• Asserts that while both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are important, _____________________________ motivation is generally associated with better learning outcomes, higher quality of work, and greater psychological well-being*

• Incentive Theory*

  • Emphasizes how ___________________________________ motivate behavior, including extrinsic motivators*

  • An ___________________________________ is a positive or negative ___________________________________ stimulus that motivates behavior

    • Positive  ☺  incentives:

• Example:

• Negative ☹ incentives:

• Example:

• Some argue that a _________________________ of this psychological theory is that it only considers external stimuli as motivators. It ________________________ take into account internal stimuli, such as intrinsic motivators

 Motivational Conflicts Theory*

• A _________________________________ occurs when we are faced with conflicting motives and we must make a choice between two things that pull us in different directions. These conflicts can create significant psychological _____________________ until we make a decision on how to resolve them*

• Three types of motivational conflicts

  •  ______________________________________________________*: Must choose only one of two desirable options.                                                                                             Example: Should I study abroad in Spain or Italy?

  •  ____________________________________________________*: Must choose one of two undesirable alternatives. “Rock and hard place” choice.                                     Example: Do unpleasant homework or unpleasant housecleaning?

  •  ___________________________________________________*: One event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features.                                                                          Example: A Bruno Mars concert would be amazing  but also expensive

• Motivation for Eating*

  • Understanding hunger and ______________________________* (the feeling of fullness) reveals how physical and mental processes interact in complex ways to influence motivation

  • Biological Bases of Hunger

    • ________________________ is often described as a biological drive

      • Drive-reduction Theory: ________________________ is the drive, _______________________ is the need, _______________________ is the behavior that fills the need*

    • The ______________________________ system and the ___________________________ system regulate hunger

      • The hunger signal has two parts: the “on” signal and the “off” signal

        • ___________________________* (“hunger hormone”) is the “on” signal

          • Primarily produced in the ___________________________

          • Released when the stomach is ______________________

          • Signals the brain, specifically the _______________________________________________*, to induce a feeling of hunger

          • Level of ghrelin ________________________ before meals and ____________________________ after eating

        • ___________________________* (“satiety hormone”) is the “off” signal

        • Produced by ___________________________ and communicates with the ________________________________________* to suppress appetite

        • Leptin levels ______________________________ after eating and are generally higher in people with more body fat

      • The ______________________________________________* uses hormones to help balance food intake with the body’s energy needs.  The ________________________________*, under the control of the hypothalamus, also plays a role in this hormonal regulation.

      • Disruptions in the levels of ghrelin and leptin or their signaling pathways may play a role in ____________________________________________ and metabolic issues such as obesity

• External Factors that Influence Eating Behaviors

  • External eating cues*:

• Example of eating cues are ________________________ and other sensory experiences, ___________________________________, _________________________________________, and __________________________________________________*

  • Note: Social situations can have a major impact on eating. Being with others tends to motivate eating.  People at a dinner party, for example, eat more than they would if they were alone. However, in Western cultures in which being thin is portrayed as the ideal, women may eat less in social situations.

• Learning can play a role 

  •  ________________________________________ conditioning often leads to otherwise neutral stimuli becoming motivators for eating

    • Example:

• Culture can also affect eating behaviors

• Affiliation Motivation*

  • Affiliation need (aka “the need to belong”):

• Some benefits of belonging:

• Ostracism

  • Definition:

• Extreme examples:

• Day-to-day examples: 

• The experience of ostracism has been linked to the experience of real physical _______________!

• Research shows that people may turn _____________________ when ostracized

Emotion (4.7)

• Emotion (aka “affect”)* is a complex experience that begins with a stimulus (external factor) and includes:

  • ______________________________________________________ (ie, changes in heart rate, an increase in blood pressure and perspiration, etc.)

  • ______________________________________________________ (internal factors)

  • ______________________________________________________ (outward signs of what a person is feeling – ie, facial expressions, posture, crying, stomping feet, etc.)

• Early Theories of Emotion (Note: You don’t need to memorize the names of these theories, but know the concepts)

  • Arousal Comes Before Emotion*

    • Theory:  Our feelings are based on our physiological arousal

    • Example: I see a bear (_______________________) and I experience increased heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension (______________________________) and this physiological arousal then ___________________________ me to experience the conscious feeling of fear

    • Research involving people with spinal cord injuries provides some support for this theory

• Arousal and Emotion Occur Simultaneously or Separate Tracks*

  • Theory:  Neural messages about the emotion-triggering stimulus travel to our sympathetic nervous system, causing our body’s arousal.  At the same time, neural messages about the stimulus travel to our brain’s cortex, causing the conscious experience of emotion.

  • Example: I see a bear (__________________________________) and my heart begins pouding _______________________________ that I feel fear.  In other words, it’s the bear that simultaneously makes my heart race and makes me feel afraid.

• Later Theories of Emotion Include Cognition    (Note: Don’t memorize the names of these theories, but know concepts)

  • Arousal + Conscious Cognitive Interpretation of Arousal = Emotion (aka Two-Factor Theory)*

    • Theory: The environmental stimulus causes physiological arousal, but that arousal itself doesn’t lead directly to an emotional feeling.  Rather, the person recognizes the arousal state and looks to the stimulus to explain it, and this _______________________________________________ leads to the emotional response. 

      • In other words, the person feels the arousal, cognitively interprets the arousal in light of the situation, and then responds emotionally based on that cognitive interpretation

      • Example: Heart pounding → Notice heart pounding → Cognitively process surroundings (a huge bear!) → “I’m scared!”

      • Note:“Cognitive interpretation” is sometimes also referred to as _____________________________________________ or _____________________________________________*

• Influential Schachter & Singer (1962) research study supporting the two-factor theory (note: you don’t need to know the names of the study authors)

  • Description:

• This experiment is significant because it helped _____________ earlier theories that physiological arousal is the sole influence on emotions. All participants were given the same shot of adrenaline but they reported different feelings based on their _________________________________ and their ____________________________________ of the situation.

• This research has been _______________________________________ in dozens of experiments

• “Low Road” and “High Road” of Emotion*

  • High Road

    • Some emotions (especially more ________________ feelings such as _____________ and ______________) travel a “high road”

    • A stimulus following this path would travel (by way of the ___________________) to the brain’s cortex, where it would be analyzed and labeled before the response is sent out via the _________________________ 

  • Low Road

    • Some emotions (especially ___________________ likes, dislikes, and fears) take a more direct “low road,” a neural ___________________ that bypasses the ______________________

    • Example: A fear-inducing stimulus would travel from the eye or ear (again via the _________________________) directly to the  ______________________

      • The amygdala’s reactions are so __________________ that we may be unaware of what’s transpired

      • After the amygdala’s response via the low road, we would have a __________________________ fear experience as the brain’s __________ receives information about the stimulus via our “high road”

• Initial, Implicit Cognitive Appraisal (aka Primary Appraisal)*

  • In the late 1990s, Richard Lazarus acknowledged the existence of both a low road and a high road pathway for experiencing emotion.  However, his theory adds a third possibility: an initial, implicit cognitive appraisal of relevance/danger

  • The Theory: In some situations, there is cognitive appraisal  ____________________ either physiological response or emotional experience*

    • This especially happens in the context of ___________________________

    •  Lazarus called this initial cognitive appraisal a _____________________________________ that is conducted to determine if the stressor is relevant and if it is dangerous.  This appraisal takes place _________________________________________________________ (involves implicit cognitive activities) and __________________ any interpreting/“labeling” of emotion

    • After primary appraisal, there is often a ______________________ appraisal during which the stimulus is ____________________________ evaluated

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis*

  • The Theory: Specific _______________________________________ affect our emotions. 

    • Some research shows that we may feel happier when smiling, angrier when scrolling, and sadder when frowning

    • Like ________________ theories, this hypothesis focuses on the relationship between a physiological response and subjective feelings*

    • Research testing this hypothesis  has produced _______________ results 

      • Mixed results in “__________________” studies: Although early studies did show a difference between the smiling and pouting groups, more recent replications haven’t consistently supported this idea

      • Support from “__________________” studies: Depressed patients reported that they felt better after Botox injections paralyzed their frowning muscles

• Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotion* (Note: You do need to know the name of this theory)

  • While other theories focus on what __________________ our experience of emotion, this theory focuses on the __________________________ of our emotions on our well-being over time

  • The Theory: Everyday positive emotions ___________________ awareness and encourage novel, aerie, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened approach helps _________________ skills and resilience that boost well-being.

  • Examples:

• So, according to this theory, nurturing positive emotions in daily life can lead to an “____________________________________” of improved well-being and resourcefulness. Conversely, ____________________________________ tend to reduce awareness and narrow thinking and action.

EMOTION THEORY AND DESCRIPTION	VISUAL
Early Theories about “Cause” of Emotion
Arousal Comes Before Emotion Our emotional are based on our physiological arousal
Arousal and Emotion Occur Simultaneously on Separate Tracks Neural messages about the emotion-triggering stimulus travel to our sympathetic nervous system, causing our body’s arousal. At the same time, neural messages about the stimulus travel to our brain’s cortex, causing the conscious experience of emotion
Later Theories About “Cause”  (Most Include Cognition)
Arousal + Conscious Cognitive Interpretation of Arousal = Emotion (aka Two-Factor Theory) The person feels the physiological arousal, cognitively interprets the arousal in the context of the situation, and responds emotionally based on that cognitive interpretation. Note: “Cognitive interpretation” may also be referred to as “cognitive appraisal” or as “cognitive labeling”
“Low Road” and “High Road” of Emotion A stimulus following the high road  would travel via the thalamus to the brain’s cortex where it would be analyzed and labeled before the emotional response is sent out via the amygdala.  The high road is typically involved with complex emotions such as love and hate.   A stimulus following the “low road” takes a quicker, more direct route from the thalamus to the amygdala, thus bypassing the cortex.. This enables a quick emotional response. A conscious experience follows as the brain’s cortex receives the info about the stimulus via the “high road.”   The low road is typically involved with simple emotions, such as fear or simple likes/dislikes.
Initial, Implicit Cognitive Appraisal (Primary Appraisal) Although some emotional reactions occur without cognitive appraisal, in some situations an initial, implicit cognitive appraisal is conducted to determine if the stressor is relevant and if it is dangerous. After primary appraisal, there is often a secondary appraisal during which the stimulus is consciously evaluated.
Facial Feedback Theory Specific facial expressions affect our emotions (ie, smiling → happy feelings) Note: Like early theories, does not mention cognition	N/A
Effect of Emotions on Well-Being
Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions Everyday positive emotions broaden awareness and encourage varied and exploratory thoughts and actions.  Over time, this helps build skills and resilience that boost well-being.  Conversely, negative emotions tend to reduce awareness and narrow thinking and action.

• Emotional Expression

  • ________________________________ such as crying, smiling, punching a wall, using emojis in texts, etc. are all expressions of emotion

  • Ekman found that facial expressions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, contempt and surprise were present in every culture he studied.  He concluded that these emotions are ________________________________*

  • However, research also shows that these emotions are _________ expressed at the same times or in the same ways in every culture. Emotional expressions can be _______________ and _________________ events, with different triggers ( ___________________________* ) and display rules

    • Display rules*:

• Research shows significant cultural variations not only in how emotions are expressed, but also in how they are ______________________ and __________________________ by others*

• In addition to cultural differences, there are also ____________ differences 

  • Within any given culture, display rules and emotional elicitors can differ according to _______________, __________, and ______________________________, and other social factors

• Examples of cultural differences in elicitors and display rules:

• Examples of social/group differences in elicitors and display rules: