Orchestra Midterm 2026

1. The Musical Staff

  • Music is written on a staff made of five lines and four spaces

  • Notes move alphabetically: A B C D E F G, then repeat

  • Ledger lines extend the staff above or below

2. Clefs & the Purpose of Clefs

Clefs exist to:

  • Show pitch range

  • Reduce ledger lines

  • Identify where specific pitches are located in the staff

3. Treble Clef (Violin)

  • Also called the G clef

Line notes (bottom to top):

E – G – B – D – F

Mnemonic: Every Good Boy Does Fine

Space notes:

F – A – C – E

Mnemonic: FACE in the space

4. Bass Clef (Cello & Double Bass)

  • Also called the F clef

Line notes (bottom to top):

G – B – D – F – A

Mnemonic: Good Boys Do Fine Always

Space notes:

A – C – E – G

Mnemonic: All Cows Eat Grass

5. C Clefs (Alto & Tenor)

C clefs are movable clefs.

Rule:

The center of the clef always points to Middle C.

  • Alto clef – Viola (middle C on the middle line)

  • Tenor clef – Upper cello / bass passages (middle C on the fourth line)

6. Note Values

(Number of beats applies when 4 is on the bottom of the time signature)

Note

Beats

Whole

4

Half

2

Quarter

1

Eighth

1/2

Sixteenth

1/4

  • A half note is half of a whole note

  • A quarter note is one quarter of a whole note

  • An eighth note is one eighth of a whole note

  • Dotted notes add half of the original value

7. Rests

  • Every note has a rest of equal duration

  • Whole rest hangs from the line

  • Half rest sits on the line

8. Time Signatures

  • Top number = beats per measure

  • Bottom number = which note gets the beat

    • 4 = quarter note

    • 2 = half note

    • 8 = eighth note

 

Examples:

  • 4/4 – simple quadruple meter

  • 3/4 – simple triple meter

  • 2/4 – simple duple meter

  • 6/8 – compound duple meter, felt in two dotted-quarter beats subdivided in three

  • 12/8 – compound quadruple meter, felt in four dotted-quarter beats subdivided in three

  • 2/2 – simple duple meter, same as cut time or alla breve

9. Measures & Bar Lines

  • Bar lines divide music

  • A measure is the space between two bar lines

  • An anacrusis (pickup) is an incomplete first measure

10. Tempo & Tempo Terminology

Tempo describes speed, not volume.

Tempo markings describe SPEED, not volume.

They are traditionally written in Italian and give performers information about pace, character, and motion.

Common Tempo Markings (Slow → Fast)

  • Grave – very slow, serious

  • Largo – broad and slow

  • Adagio – slow, lyrical

  • Andante – walking pace

  • Moderato – moderate speed

  • Allegretto – moderately fast

  • Allegro – fast, lively

  • Vivace – very fast and energetic

  • Presto – extremely fast

Tempo Modifications (Changes Over Time)

These indicate gradual or immediate tempo change:

  • Ritardando (rit.) – gradually slower

  • Rallentando (rall.) – gradually slower, often broader than rit.

  • Accelerando (accel.) – gradually faster

  • A tempo – return to original tempo

  • Tempo primo – return to the very first tempo

Character-Based Tempo Instructions

These combine speed + style:

  • Allegro con brio – fast with energy

  • Adagio cantabile – slow and song-like

  • Andante sostenuto – sustained walking tempo

  • Allegro ma non troppo – fast, but not too much

11. Dynamics

Soft → Loud:

pp – p – mp – mf – f – ff

  • Crescendo – gradually louder

  • Decrescendo / Diminuendo – gradually softer

12. Articulation & Bowing Symbols

  • Legato – smooth and connected

  • Staccato – short and separated

  • Accent (>) – strong beginning

  • Tenuto (—) – full length, weight into the string

  • Slur – connects different pitches

  • Tie – connects the same pitch

  • Bow comma – retake / lift

13. Half Steps, Whole Steps & the Keyboard

  • Half step – the smallest distance in Western music

  • Whole step – two half steps

Naturally occurring half steps:

  • B–C

  • E–F

Black keys are grouped in 2s and 3s.

The white key to the left of every group of two is a C.  Middle C is in the middle of the piano (C4).

14. Accidentals

  • Sharp (♯) – raises pitch by a half step

  • Flat (♭) – lowers pitch by a half step

  • Natural (♮) – cancels an accidental

Rules:

  • Accidentals last for the entire measure

  • They apply only to the octave written

15. Key Signatures & Mnemonics

Key signatures tell which notes are altered throughout the piece.

Order of Sharps

F – C – G – D – A – E – B

Mnemonic: Fat Cats Go Down Alleys Eating Birds

Flats

The order of flats is the same as reversing the order of sharps.

Order of flats:

B – E – A – D – G – C – F

16. Circle of Fifths (Major Keys)

  • There are 15 major keys used in music

  • C Major = no sharps or flats

  • Clockwise adds sharps

  • Counterclockwise adds flats

Clockwise:

C → G → D → A → E → B → F♯ → C♯

Counterclockwise:

C → F → B♭ → E♭ → A♭ → D♭ → G♭ → C♭

Enharmonic awareness is expected.

Enharmonic major keys:  B/Cb, F#/Gb, C#/Db

17. Relative Minor Keys

The relative minor tonic begins on the 6th scale degree of the major scale.

Examples:

  • C major → A minor

  • G major → E minor

  • D major → B minor

  • F major → D minor

Major and relative minor share the same key signature.

  • There are 15 minor keys used in music...they share the same key signature as their relative majors but have a different tonal center.

18. Scales

Major Scale Pattern

W – W – H – W – W – W – H

Minor Scales

  • Natural minor – lowered 3, 6, 7

  • Harmonic minor – raised 7

  • Melodic minor

    • Ascending: raised 6 & 7

    • Descending: natural minor

Tonic Arpeggio

Scale degrees 1–3–5–8

19. Ensemble Vocabulary

  • Intonation

  • Balance (pyramid of sound)

  • Blend

  • Harmony

  • Tutti

  • Tacet

20. Bow Fundamentals

Tone is controlled by:

  • Bow speed

  • Bow placement

  • Natural arm weight

Bow should remain close to a right angle to the string.

21. Expanded Bow Stroke Definitions (Chamber Orchestra Level)

Bow strokes are best understood in families, not as isolated techniques.

All bow strokes are manipulations of the same core principles:

bow speed, bow placement, and natural arm weight.

At the Chamber level, students are expected to understand how and why each stroke works, not just recognize the name.

1. Son Premier (François Rabbath)

  • Developed by François Rabbath

  • Translates to “first sound”

  • The freest, most resonant vibration of the string

  • Achieved with:

    • Correct bow speed

    • Correct contact point

    • No added pressure

  • Each pitch naturally resonates when these elements are balanced

  • Son Premier is the foundation of all tone production.

  • Every other bow stroke is a controlled manipulation of this sound—not a replacement for it.

2. Sustained Bow Strokes (On-the-String Family)

Legato

  • Smooth, connected sound

  • Bow changes are hidden

  • Consistent speed and contact point

  • Used for lyrical and expressive playing

Détaché

  • Separate bow strokes for each note

  • Sound remains connected, not short

  • Clean bow changes with no silence

  • Primary orchestral stroke

3. Slur Family

Slur

  • Multiple notes played in one bow direction

  • Left hand articulates while bow sustains

  • Requires even bow distribution

Slurred Staccato

  • Several articulated notes within a single bow

  • Articulation comes from fingers and bow speed changes

  • Sound is clear but sustained

4. Portato / Louré

  • Re-articulated notes under one bow

  • Slight separation without silence

  • Often described as a “gentle pulsing”

  • Created by subtle bow speed changes, not stops

  • Common in Romantic repertoire

5. Martelé / On-String Staccato

Martelé

  • Means “hammered”

  • Clear, accented start to each note

  • Pinch-release motion

  • Space between notes

  • Stays on the string

On-String Staccato

  • Short, separated notes

  • Bow remains on the string

  • Controlled articulation without bounce

6. Spiccato Family (Off-the-String)

Spiccato

  • Controlled bounce of the bow

  • Bow leaves and returns to the string

  • Occurs naturally at the balance point

  • Speed and height are controlled, not forced

Ricochet / Flying Spiccato

  • Multiple bounces from one bow impulse

  • Usually on a down bow

  • Bow rebounds naturally

  • Requires relaxed hand and forearm

7. Sautillé

  • Very fast off-the-string stroke

  • Happens naturally due to bow speed

  • Smaller motion than spiccato

  • Used in fast passages

  • Cannot be forced—speed creates the stroke

8. Hooked Bowings

  • Two or more notes in the same bow direction

  • Slight separation between notes

  • Often written with hooked slurs

  • Used for rhythmic emphasis or phrasing

9. Collé

  • Finger-driven bow stroke

  • Bow starts from a stopped position

  • Uses fingers and hand, not arm

  • Essential for:

    • Articulation control

    • Developing clean starts

  • Foundation for advanced bow control

10. Retakes & Recovery Strokes

  • Planned bow lifts

  • Used to:

    • Reset bow direction

    • Shape phrasing

    • Manage bow distribution

  • Retakes should be silent and intentional

11. Artificial Harmonics

  • Left hand lightly touches the string at a specific node

  • Produces a higher pitch overtone

  • Requires:

    • Precise finger spacing

    • Light bow contact

    • Excellent left-hand control

  • Advanced technique used sparingly

Big Picture (Chamber Expectation)

  • All bow strokes come from Son Premier

  • Articulation ≠ pressure

  • Speed and placement create sound

  • Control comes from relaxation, not force

  • Advanced playing is about choice, not effort

22. Roadmap & Form Symbols

  • Repeat signs

  • 1st and 2nd endings

  • D.C. – Da Capo

  • D.S. – Dal Segno

  • Segno

  • Coda

  • Fine

  • Fermata

23. Music History

Chronological Order

Ancient →  Medieval → Renaissance → Baroque → Classical → Romantic → Modern

Baroque (1600–1750)

  • Ornamentation

  • Counterpoint

  • Motor rhythm

  • Smaller orchestras

Classical (1750–1825)

Focus on clarity, balance, and form.

Joseph Haydn

  • Employed by Prince Esterházy

  • Stable employment allowed experimentation

  • Established:

    • Sonata form

    • Symphony structure

    • String quartet

  • Created the structural framework of Classical music

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

  • Mastered Haydn’s forms

  • Added lyricism, drama, and emotional depth

  • Used structure to express personality

Ludwig van Beethoven

  • Learned Classical rules thoroughly

  • Expanded and broke them

  • Larger orchestras

  • Longer forms

  • Greater emotional range

  • Bridge between Classical and Romantic eras

Romantic (1820–1900)

  • Emotion over balance

  • Rubato

  • Nationalism

  • Larger orchestras

Modern / 20th–21st Century

  • Experimentation

  • New harmonies and techniques

  • Expanded roles for rhythm, texture, and timbre

Big Picture

Important Historical Connection:

  • Haydn developed much of the Classical “formula” while working for Prince Esterházy, who demanded frequent new compositions.

  • Mozart followed these forms but added greater melodic and expressive depth.

  • Beethoven began within Classical rules but gradually broke them, ushering in the Romantic era.

    • Expanded forms

    • Greater emotional range

    • Symphony No. 9, especially the choral 4th movement, broke Classical expectations entirely

      ➡ Beethoven is a bridge composer between Classical and Romantic.