Encoding refers to the acquisition of new information and the formation of a memory trace.
Separating Encoding from Retrieval
It is challenging to separate encoding from storage and especially retrieval.
Neuroimaging procedures help identify different brain activities during the studying and retrieval stages of memory.
Differences in brain activity can be observed when studying items that are later recalled compared to those that are forgotten.
Basic Variables in Encoding
Elaborative Rehearsal
Not all types of rehearsal are equal; there is a distinction between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.
- Maintenance Rehearsal
- A form of shallow processing involving the repetition of information to keep it available in Short Term Memory (STM).
- Elaborative Rehearsal
- Involves linking to-be-learned information with existing memories.
- Entails cognitive interaction with the information and reflecting on its meaning.
- Produces more of an episodic memory than maintenance rehearsal.
Elaborative Processing
This concept, associated with Craik and Lockhart, relates to deep processing.
- It includes elaboration or relating new information to known information.
- The quantity of links or associations to other memories is crucial for elaboration.
- These links serve as potential retrieval cues and may increase distinctiveness regarding other memories, yielding less interference during retrieval.
- Effort during encoding predicts retention and retrieval, albeit hard to define.
- Techniques such as mnemonics and organizing input enhance elaborative rehearsal.
Imagery and Memory for Pictures
Concrete Words vs. Abstract Words
- Concrete words tend to be recalled better than abstract words because concrete words can be both imaged and verbally represented, while abstract words can only be verbally represented.
- Humans exhibit strong memory capabilities for pictures and objects.
- Peg-Word Mnemonic Technique: Employs imagery to enhance memory.
- Paivio proposed Dual Coding Theory
- Claims that concrete items can be remembered with two codes (images and verbal), while abstract items have only one (verbal).
- Dual coding provides more routes for retrieval, fitting well with the concept of elaborative rehearsal.
Meaningfulness
Manipulation Variables
- Meaningfulness can be manipulated through factors such as:
- Frequency scales in language
- Pronounceability
- Ease of image production
- Number of associations (best predictor of recall)
- Network of associations includes semantic and episodic memories and relates to prior knowledge (domain-specific knowledge).
- Example: Knowledge of chess influences performance.
- Research shows that enhancing the meaning of material benefits recall significantly.
Presentation Variables
Testing Effects
Definition: Refers to the phenomenon where taking a test on recently studied material is more beneficial than continued studying.
- Possible explanations:
- The practice test acts as a form of studying or allows for more active learning processes.
- It may match testing conditions that assist retrieval.
- Potential negative transfer occurs if wrong answers or distractors are recalled.
Isolation Effects
Known as the Von Restorff Effect:
- If an item is distinct from others (e.g., different print color), it is learned more quickly and remembered better.
- Isolated items receive more attention.
- Research indicates isolated items are better recalled, while surrounding items may be poorly recalled, leading to a retrograde amnesia effect (previous items forgotten) and anterograde amnesia effect (subsequent items forgotten).
Seductive Details
The effect of distinct items on memory is also observable in the phenomenon of Seductive Details:
- Individuals remember unimportant distinct details better than key information, likely due to attention distraction affecting coherence.
Spacing Effects
Definition: Indicates the superiority of spaced or distributed practice over cramming (massed practice).
- Potential hypotheses for why spacing is effective:
- Retrograde Amnesia Hypothesis: The second presentation interferes with storing the first.
- Attention-Deficit Hypothesis: Attention wanes if the second practice follows too quickly.
- Spacing leads to slightly different encodings, creating more retrieval cues.
Optimal Spacing Interval
Rule: The longer the interval before testing, the wider the spacing for optimal results.
This can be represented as a ratio in studies.
Generation Effect
Occurs when participants generate the target item in response to cues versus simply reading items.
- This leads to increased memory for items generated compared to items merely presented.
- This effect is observable in various recall and recognition tests, particularly free recall and cued recall.
- Does not occur in read-only conditions, and seems to enhance elaborative rehearsal.
Limitations of Elaborative Rehearsal
Implicit memories may not benefit from elaborative rehearsal, especially in incidental learning instances.
Specific limitations concerning verbal elaboration arise when conveying nonverbal information (e.g., pictures), leading to less accurate retention.
This phenomenon contributes to issues such as “verbal overshadowing” in eyewitness reports.
Learner Variables
Incidental vs. Intentional Learning
Incidental memory typically occurs in everyday scenarios, without deliberate attempts to remember.
Tasks to test incidental learning may include assessing differing levels of processing (e.g., does the word contain “e”? Rate pleasantness?) followed by retrieval tasks.
Generally, deeper initial processing yields better memory retrieval even in the case of unexpected tests.
Incentives
Rewards may not produce improved memory, particularly when cash incentives are utilized.
Variance in the amount of money related to remembering different words shows no better memory for higher-value words.
Incentives potentially work better in real-world situations than in college student contexts.
Interest
Personal interest in the material significantly enhances retention levels.
Probably due to prior knowledge aiding in the acquisition of new information, which explains why experts have a remarkable memory in their areas of expertise.
Arousal
Optimal arousal levels for tasks vary (noted in the Yerkes-Dodson law).
Performance typically follows an inverted U-shaped curve, peaking at intermediate levels of arousal.
The impact of stimulant drugs that increase CNS arousal on performance and memory is inconclusive.
Circadian Rhythms and Learning
Arousal fluctuates over a 24-hour cycle; STM task performances exhibit varying effectiveness across the day.
Study findings show peaks in immediate memory; e.g., for a science article, memory performance was best at 8 AM.
Emotions and Encoding
The emotional nature of an event significantly interacts with memory retention.
Emotional arousal can direct attention to specific event aspects while filtering out others.
Emotional events can boost epinephrine levels, stimulating the amygdala linked to long-term memory (LTM) formation.
Flashbulb Memories
Definition: Vivid recollections of unexpected, emotional, and consequential events (e.g., 9/11).
It is believed to represent a unique memory mechanism resistant to forgetting, though some research indicates loss of details over time.
Eyewitness Memory and Emotional Arousal
Emotional incidents in crimes may enhance memory for central details but impair recall of peripheral aspects.
Trauma may induce retrograde or anterograde amnesia, causing losses of previous and subsequent details.
Schemas
Definition: Schemas are outlines of general knowledge stored in semantic memory, often referred to as scripts.
Schemas are organized hierarchically, containing information relevant to a topic (e.g., actions taken in class like taking notes).
Functions of Schemas
Guide the selection for encoding.
Organize memory storage.
Offer similarities to other experiences.
Provide retrieval cues for memory searches.
Can lead to distortion by recalling general characteristics instead of specific event details.
Research on Schemas
Research demonstrates that consistent items in a specific context (e.g., office) are remembered better than inconsistent items (e.g., toy truck).
Inconsistent items are better recalled due to their distinctiveness compared to normative schema elements.
Schemas can result in miscoding, adding non-present information synonymous with the schema.
Repeatedly experienced events can become schematized, losing specific details over time.
While schemas are beneficial, they can also hinder memory accuracy and thus need to adjust as experiences evolve.
Metamemory
Definition: Metamemory refers to knowledge about memory, encompassing judgments regarding the difficulty of material, strategies to use, monitoring progress, and awareness of personal knowledge limits.
Assessment typically employs self-report questionnaires regarding the time required for learning.
Judgments of learning before testing represent how well subjects anticipate their material retention.
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Factors
Subjects are effective in predicting intrinsic factors' influences but struggle with extrinsic ones (e.g., repetition, spacing).
Developmental progression in metamemory capabilities has been documented, emphasizing early memory self-efficacy.
Applications of Academic Learning and Encoding
Elaboration: Strategies involving relating material to existing knowledge improve recall, unlike shallow processing (e.g., underlining, verbatim copying).
Meaningfulness: Implement headings, theme statements, and multimedia clips to utilize prior knowledge and enhance understanding.
Generation Effect: Aim for stimuli present during encoding that assist in learning retrieval.
Self-Efficacy: Teaching mnemonic techniques to students enhances their self-efficacy.
Circadian Rhythms: Recognition and consideration of circadian rhythms' influence play a role in academic learning effectiveness.