Chapter 9

Encoding

Definition of Encoding

  • Encoding refers to the acquisition of new information and the formation of a memory trace.

Separating Encoding from Retrieval

  • It is challenging to separate encoding from storage and especially retrieval.
  • Neuroimaging procedures help identify different brain activities during the studying and retrieval stages of memory.
  • Differences in brain activity can be observed when studying items that are later recalled compared to those that are forgotten.

Basic Variables in Encoding

Elaborative Rehearsal

  • Not all types of rehearsal are equal; there is a distinction between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.
      - Maintenance Rehearsal
        - A form of shallow processing involving the repetition of information to keep it available in Short Term Memory (STM).
      - Elaborative Rehearsal
        - Involves linking to-be-learned information with existing memories.
        - Entails cognitive interaction with the information and reflecting on its meaning.
        - Produces more of an episodic memory than maintenance rehearsal.

Elaborative Processing

  • This concept, associated with Craik and Lockhart, relates to deep processing.
      - It includes elaboration or relating new information to known information.
      - The quantity of links or associations to other memories is crucial for elaboration.
      - These links serve as potential retrieval cues and may increase distinctiveness regarding other memories, yielding less interference during retrieval.
      - Effort during encoding predicts retention and retrieval, albeit hard to define.
      - Techniques such as mnemonics and organizing input enhance elaborative rehearsal.

Imagery and Memory for Pictures

  • Concrete Words vs. Abstract Words
      - Concrete words tend to be recalled better than abstract words because concrete words can be both imaged and verbally represented, while abstract words can only be verbally represented.
      - Humans exhibit strong memory capabilities for pictures and objects.
      - Peg-Word Mnemonic Technique: Employs imagery to enhance memory.
      - Paivio proposed Dual Coding Theory
        - Claims that concrete items can be remembered with two codes (images and verbal), while abstract items have only one (verbal).
        - Dual coding provides more routes for retrieval, fitting well with the concept of elaborative rehearsal.

Meaningfulness

  • Manipulation Variables
      - Meaningfulness can be manipulated through factors such as:
        - Frequency scales in language
        - Pronounceability
        - Ease of image production
        - Number of associations (best predictor of recall)
        - Network of associations includes semantic and episodic memories and relates to prior knowledge (domain-specific knowledge).
      - Example: Knowledge of chess influences performance.
      - Research shows that enhancing the meaning of material benefits recall significantly.

Presentation Variables

Testing Effects

  • Definition: Refers to the phenomenon where taking a test on recently studied material is more beneficial than continued studying.
      - Possible explanations:
        - The practice test acts as a form of studying or allows for more active learning processes.
        - It may match testing conditions that assist retrieval.
      - Potential negative transfer occurs if wrong answers or distractors are recalled.

Isolation Effects

  • Known as the Von Restorff Effect:
      - If an item is distinct from others (e.g., different print color), it is learned more quickly and remembered better.
      - Isolated items receive more attention.
      - Research indicates isolated items are better recalled, while surrounding items may be poorly recalled, leading to a retrograde amnesia effect (previous items forgotten) and anterograde amnesia effect (subsequent items forgotten).

Seductive Details

  • The effect of distinct items on memory is also observable in the phenomenon of Seductive Details:
      - Individuals remember unimportant distinct details better than key information, likely due to attention distraction affecting coherence.

Spacing Effects

  • Definition: Indicates the superiority of spaced or distributed practice over cramming (massed practice).
      - Potential hypotheses for why spacing is effective:
        - Retrograde Amnesia Hypothesis: The second presentation interferes with storing the first.
        - Attention-Deficit Hypothesis: Attention wanes if the second practice follows too quickly.
      - Spacing leads to slightly different encodings, creating more retrieval cues.
Optimal Spacing Interval
  • Rule: The longer the interval before testing, the wider the spacing for optimal results.
  • This can be represented as a ratio in studies.

Generation Effect

  • Occurs when participants generate the target item in response to cues versus simply reading items.
      - This leads to increased memory for items generated compared to items merely presented.
      - This effect is observable in various recall and recognition tests, particularly free recall and cued recall.
      - Does not occur in read-only conditions, and seems to enhance elaborative rehearsal.

Limitations of Elaborative Rehearsal

  • Implicit memories may not benefit from elaborative rehearsal, especially in incidental learning instances.
  • Specific limitations concerning verbal elaboration arise when conveying nonverbal information (e.g., pictures), leading to less accurate retention.
  • This phenomenon contributes to issues such as “verbal overshadowing” in eyewitness reports.

Learner Variables

Incidental vs. Intentional Learning

  • Incidental memory typically occurs in everyday scenarios, without deliberate attempts to remember.
  • Tasks to test incidental learning may include assessing differing levels of processing (e.g., does the word contain “e”? Rate pleasantness?) followed by retrieval tasks.
  • Generally, deeper initial processing yields better memory retrieval even in the case of unexpected tests.

Incentives

  • Rewards may not produce improved memory, particularly when cash incentives are utilized.
  • Variance in the amount of money related to remembering different words shows no better memory for higher-value words.
  • Incentives potentially work better in real-world situations than in college student contexts.

Interest

  • Personal interest in the material significantly enhances retention levels.
  • Probably due to prior knowledge aiding in the acquisition of new information, which explains why experts have a remarkable memory in their areas of expertise.

Arousal

  • Optimal arousal levels for tasks vary (noted in the Yerkes-Dodson law).
  • Performance typically follows an inverted U-shaped curve, peaking at intermediate levels of arousal.
  • The impact of stimulant drugs that increase CNS arousal on performance and memory is inconclusive.
Circadian Rhythms and Learning
  • Arousal fluctuates over a 24-hour cycle; STM task performances exhibit varying effectiveness across the day.
  • Study findings show peaks in immediate memory; e.g., for a science article, memory performance was best at 8 AM.

Emotions and Encoding

  • The emotional nature of an event significantly interacts with memory retention.
  • Emotional arousal can direct attention to specific event aspects while filtering out others.
  • Emotional events can boost epinephrine levels, stimulating the amygdala linked to long-term memory (LTM) formation.

Flashbulb Memories

  • Definition: Vivid recollections of unexpected, emotional, and consequential events (e.g., 9/11).
  • It is believed to represent a unique memory mechanism resistant to forgetting, though some research indicates loss of details over time.

Eyewitness Memory and Emotional Arousal

  • Emotional incidents in crimes may enhance memory for central details but impair recall of peripheral aspects.
  • Trauma may induce retrograde or anterograde amnesia, causing losses of previous and subsequent details.

Schemas

  • Definition: Schemas are outlines of general knowledge stored in semantic memory, often referred to as scripts.
  • Schemas are organized hierarchically, containing information relevant to a topic (e.g., actions taken in class like taking notes).

Functions of Schemas

  • Guide the selection for encoding.
  • Organize memory storage.
  • Offer similarities to other experiences.
  • Provide retrieval cues for memory searches.
  • Can lead to distortion by recalling general characteristics instead of specific event details.

Research on Schemas

  • Research demonstrates that consistent items in a specific context (e.g., office) are remembered better than inconsistent items (e.g., toy truck).
  • Inconsistent items are better recalled due to their distinctiveness compared to normative schema elements.
  • Schemas can result in miscoding, adding non-present information synonymous with the schema.
  • Repeatedly experienced events can become schematized, losing specific details over time.
  • While schemas are beneficial, they can also hinder memory accuracy and thus need to adjust as experiences evolve.

Metamemory

  • Definition: Metamemory refers to knowledge about memory, encompassing judgments regarding the difficulty of material, strategies to use, monitoring progress, and awareness of personal knowledge limits.
  • Assessment typically employs self-report questionnaires regarding the time required for learning.
  • Judgments of learning before testing represent how well subjects anticipate their material retention.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Factors

  • Subjects are effective in predicting intrinsic factors' influences but struggle with extrinsic ones (e.g., repetition, spacing).
  • Developmental progression in metamemory capabilities has been documented, emphasizing early memory self-efficacy.

Applications of Academic Learning and Encoding

  • Elaboration: Strategies involving relating material to existing knowledge improve recall, unlike shallow processing (e.g., underlining, verbatim copying).
  • Meaningfulness: Implement headings, theme statements, and multimedia clips to utilize prior knowledge and enhance understanding.
  • Generation Effect: Aim for stimuli present during encoding that assist in learning retrieval.
  • Self-Efficacy: Teaching mnemonic techniques to students enhances their self-efficacy.
  • Circadian Rhythms: Recognition and consideration of circadian rhythms' influence play a role in academic learning effectiveness.