Comprehensive Notes on International Relations: Theories, Actors, and Sovereignty

Foundations and the Scientific Evolution of International Relations (IR)

• The institutional birth of International Relations (IR) can be traced to 1927 in Geneva with the creation of the Institute of International Relations (Institut des relations internationales), which embodied the multilateralism initiated by the League of Nations ($SDN$ - Société des Nations).
• Initial studies of IR were rooted in a "pacifist value of regulation," focusing primarily on the pursuit of peace. However, scholars realized that focusing solely on peace as a fundamental value was insufficient for a comprehensive study of global dynamics.
• Modern IR study evolved into a branch of Political Science ($3^{rd}$ category), marking the birth of the scientific study of international relations.
• Max Weber ($1864 - 1920$) and Émile Durkheim: Weber is considered the founder of political science. He was the first to analyze the State through the lens of political behavior rather than just legal structures.
• Max Weber's Sociological Perspective: He viewed the State as a "social phenomenon." He moved the study beyond legalism to focus on human behavior within societies. By "scientizing" human behavior, he established political science as the matrix for IR studies.
• Concept of the Exclusive Actor: This refers to identifying specific entities (actors) in reality whose behaviors are studied to understand IR. Human behavior among these actors constitutes international relations.
• Raymond Aron: A political scientist who approached IR through the prism of political science. He emphasized that actors in IR must be distinguished from other types of social or domestic actors who do not engage in international activities.

The Realist Paradigm and Anglo-Saxon Intellectual Hegemony

• The field of IR is dominated by the "Anglo-Saxon doctrine," with Realism serving as the majority current of thought.
• Definition of Realism: A movement that focuses on studying "physical reality" and matter. It seeks to observe the reality of IR outside of political ideals, using a scientific approach akin to "hard sciences."
• Principles of Realism:     - Rejection of moral values in study: The approach must be a "neutral study," observing relations as they occur spontaneously.     - Pessimism: Realists believe that pacifism is essentially impossible and that certain spontaneous, inevitable mechanisms drive conflict regardless of human goodwill.     - Inevitability of Violence: Violence is viewed as an inescapable "horizon." War is considered an automatic behavior within the framework of IR, supported by the historical regularity of violent conflict.
• Realism vs. Idealism:     - Idealism: Suggests that while the situation may be grim, human will can strive to improve things and move IR toward peace.     - Realist Critique: Realists criticize Idealists for treating war as something that can be detached from the system, whereas Realists see it as inherent to the structure.

Key Realist Authors and Concepts of Power

• Reinhold Niebuhr ($1920$s): Following a post-WW I European trip, he became the first author to argue that the study of IR must center on the prospect of the use of violence.     - The Christian Perspective on Human Nature: Niebuhr posited that humans possess "original sin," making it illusory to think individuals will not resort to violence. He argued that States are merely groupings of individuals and reflect the violent nature of their constituents.     - Violence as Structure: The recourse to violence "structures" all of IR. It is the determining factor of all other relations. Diplomacy exists only because there is an underlying perspective of potential violence.     - The Paradox of Non-Violence: IR cannot be understood by discarding violence, because even peaceful relations are defined by the preparation for or expectation of a violent turn.     - The State as the Primary Actor: In the $1900$s, the State was the exclusive actor because it was the only entity capable of waging war outside its borders (though this changed later with the rise of terrorist groups).
• Hans Morgenthau ($1904 - 1980$): The leading figure of Classic Realism in the $20^{th}$ century.     - Core Postulate: States are the primary actors. Consequently, international organizations are viewed merely as extensions or groupings of States.     - The Survival Instinct: A State's primary motivation is to guarantee its own existence. While individuals might sacrifice themselves for a country, the State as an entity invariably seeks security.     - The Power-Security Cycle: Morgenthau identifies a couplet of "Security and Power." While security is the goal, the quest for power becomes the primary means ($\text{Power} \rightarrow\text{Security}$). He argues that the more powerful a State is, the more secure it becomes.     - Morgenthau's Four Elements: 1. Violence, 2. Security, 3. The State as the Actor, 4. The quest for security through power.

The Security Dilemma and Strategic Theory

• John Herz ($1951$): Coined "The Security Dilemma" (or Paradox of Security) during the Cold War.     - The Mechanism: As one State acquires power (e.g., nuclear weapons, arms race) to feel secure, it causes other States to feel insecure. These other States then increase their own power to compensate.     - The Result: A mechanical cycle of power escalation that often leads to "overflow" or war, followed by temporary disarmament, and then a renewed need to rearm for security.
• Political Action and Idealism: John F. Kennedy's call to stop the arms race to avoid nuclear war exemplifies how political and legal intervention (Idealism) can minimize the conflicts predicted by Realist science. The "Détente" policy is viewed as a form of applied Idealism.
• Raymond Aron and Strategic Authors:     - Aron specialized in the idea of the recourse to violence, famously using the formula of "the diplomat and the soldier."     - Carl von Clausewitz: European military strategist and author of "On War" (De la guerre). Clausewitz defined war as "the continuation of politics by other means." He focused on frontal war, quantity, and "force de frappe" (strike force capacity/destruction).     - Sun Tzu: Author of "The Art of War." Unlike Clausewitz, Sun Tzu emphasizes intelligence, the ruse, information, and surprise. He argues that war is won by the mind, not necessarily through violence.     - Note: Aron's work relies more heavily on Clausewitzian tradition than on Sun Tzu.

Neorealism, Structuralism, and Alternative Theories

• Kenneth Waltz ($1924 - 2013$): Founder of Neorealism, which incorporates Structuralism.     - Structuralism: Borrowed from linguistics (Ferdinand de Saussure). It argues that elements (States) cannot be understood in isolation but only through their interactions and the links between them within a system.     - The State System: Waltz suggests the system is not as anachronistic as it seems; over time, interactions have structured into the "International Relations" we see today.
• Samuel Huntington: Proposed a structuralist vision where interactions are shaped by civilizational, cultural, and ideological structures.     - Example: Vladimir Putin's goal to preserve the Russian language is seen as a defense of a cultural/civilizational identity. Conflicts are justified by these deep-seated structures.
• Francis Fukuyama: Noted the "triumph of democracy" at the end of the Cold War.
• Michael Doyle: Developed the theory that the internal political nature of actors matters. He argues that democratic states are less violent toward one another (Democratic Peace Theory).
• Marshall McLuhan: Theorized the "Global Village." He argued that media and communication have destroyed the State's monopoly on IR, allowing individuals and groups to participate.
• Jürgen Habermas: Theorized the "Public Political Space," envisioning a globalized society of individuals aspiring to participate in power, potentially replacing traditional State roles.
• Constructivism ($1920$s): Emerged from sociology. It distinguishes between "facts" and the "discourse" or narration about those facts.     - Key Thinkers: John Ruggie and Martha Finnemore.     - Deconstructivism: Suggests that dominant discourses are often deformations of reality intended to impose a specific vision. These must be "deconstructed" to see how they shape the perception of IR.

The State as a Sovereign Territorial Entity

• Definition of the State: A sedentary entity that asserts sovereignty over a specific territory and its population.
• Jean Bodin: Defined sovereignty as the power "to command and to constrain without being commanded or constrained."
• Max Weber's Definition ($\text{from "Politics as a Vocation"}$): Defined the modern State as a "human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical violence within a given territory."
• Recognition: Sovereignty is effective only if the State controls violence and if other entities recognize its sovereignty.     - Example: The sovereignty of Ukraine is challenged by the Russian invasion.     - Membership in organizations like the UN requires the recognition of territorial integrity.     - Non-recognized entities (e.g., Palestine) are considered secondary actors rather than sovereign States.

Territorial Components and Geopolitical Stakes

• Borders: Borders are the product of State affirmation and international agreement.     - Natural Borders: Recognized by international law, such as the atmosphere and the sea.     - Conventional Borders: Mountains and rivers are typically considered "human" or "geopolitical" borders decided by convention, not automatic natural law.
• UN Charter (Charter of San Francisco), Article $2$: Requires members to respect the territorial integrity of other States.
• Colonial Borders: Many post-colonial States kept the borders of former colonies to maintain stability, though this often went against the reality of ethnic and population distributions (especially in Africa).
• The Subsoil and Waterways:     - A State is sovereign over what is beneath its surface and the waterways within its borders.     - Conflicts arise when rivers (like the Nile) cross multiple borders. International law seeks to regulate the used of these shared resources.     - Hydraulic Energy: Dams provide storable, non-polluting, and on-demand energy, but create tension between energy storage and agricultural irrigation needs.     - The Nile conflict involves Egypt's need for wheat against upstream dam construction.
• The Himalayas Case Study: Huge quantities of fresh water are stored in glaciers. Current conflicts involve the control of the source/headwaters of rivers. This is a primary driver of Chinese interest in the region and the rivalry between India and Pakistan.

Maritime Sovereignty and the Montego Bay Convention

• Convention of Montego Bay (UNCLOS): Drafted in $1982$ ($\text{signed Dec 10, 1982}$) and in force since $1994$. It followed $24$ years of negotiations beginning in $1958$.
• Maritime Zones and Definitions:     - Internal Waters: Closed seas with an outlet. These are areas of "full sovereignty" where the State can prohibit access without justification.     - Territorial Sea: Extends up to $12,000$ nautical miles ($20,000$ meters/$20$ km) from the coast. Sovereignty is high, but the State must allow "innocent transit" (continuous and rapid passage).     - Straits: Narrow passages where ships have a "right of transit passage," which includes the right to pass and potentially station if necessary (e.g., the Bosphorus in Turkey).     - Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Extends to $200,000$ nautical miles ($400$ km). The State is not fully sovereign but has a monopoly on the exploitation of resources (fish/halieutic resources, oil, and gas).     - Plateau Continental: In some cases, the EEZ can extend to the end of the continental shelf.     - International Waters (High Seas): No State has sovereignty. There is total freedom, and legal jurisdiction is determined by the flag the ship flies. The UN manages the seabed.
• South China Sea Conflict: Involves China's "9-dash line" claims, which are not recognized by the Montego Bay Convention. Actions include:     - Armed confrontations between Chinese and Philippine coast guards (water cannons).     - Militarization of the Paracel Islands and Spratly Archipelago.     - Control of commercial routes through the Strait of Malacca.
• Resources: Conflicts focus on both halieutic (fish) and mineral (hydrocarbons, lead, lithium) resources.

Sovereignty in Airspace and Outer Space

• Airspace: States have full sovereignty over their "intra-atmospheric" space.     - Convention of Chicago (regulated by IATA - International Air Transport Association): Governs global air traffic.     - States can sovereignly close their airspace to foreign flights.
• Outer Space:     - Outer Space Treaty ($1967$): Negotiated by the UN. It prohibits the appropriation of space and its militarization (though states likely do so covertly).     - Access to space is currently a monopoly of a few states, creating a major military stake (anti-missile systems, guidance systems).     - Strategic Actions: In $2021/2022$, Russia destroyed a satellite with a missile from Earth. China has demonstrated the ability of one satellite to intercept another.     - Space Statistics: $85\%$ of satellites are American; $5-10\%$ are Russian; the remainder belong to China and Western nations.     - Legal Status: Astronauts (or spationauts/cosmonauts/taikonauts) are considered "agents of humanity." Mandatory assistance must be provided to them in emergencies.
• Information Geopolitics: Satellites are currently replacing undersea cables (CSM - Cables sous-marins) for global communication.     - The US is pushing for satellite constellations because they do not dominate the undersea cable market.     - France as a Hub: France currently holds a monopoly over many high-speed cables running from the USA to Africa and serves as a major collaborator with US intelligence services regarding this data traffic.