The West Between the Wars 1919 – 1939
Introduction
Nationalists and Communists in China formed an alliance, illustrating the complex political landscape of the interwar period.
Adolf Hitler aimed to showcase Aryan superiority at the 1936 Berlin Olympics. However, Jesse Owens, an African-American athlete, won four gold medals, challenging Hitler’s ideology.
This period saw the rise of totalitarian states under leaders like Hitler, Mussolini, and Stalin, each with distinct yet similar methods of control.
Timeline
1919-1939: The West Between the Wars - A period marked by the aftermath of World War I and the build-up to World War II.
1919: Start of the period following World War I, characterized by attempts to establish a new international order and economic recovery.
1922: Lenin and the Communists create the USSR, consolidating Communist power in Russia and establishing a new form of government.
1923: Nationalists and Communists in China form an alliance, reflecting the anti-imperialist sentiments and the desire for national unity.
1925:
1926: Mussolini establishes a Fascist dictatorship in Italy, marking the rise of fascist ideology and authoritarian rule in Europe.
1929: U.S. stock market crashes, marking the start of the Great Depression and triggering a global economic crisis.
1930:
1932: Sultan Ibn Sa‘u¯ d establishes the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, unifying the region and laying the foundation for a modern Saudi state.
1933: Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany, signaling the rise of Nazism and the beginning of a regime that would lead to World War II.
1935: Nuremberg Laws in Germany exclude Jews as citizens, institutionalizing anti-Semitism and paving the way for the Holocaust.
1938: Japan passes military draft law, indicating Japan's increasing militarization and expansionist ambitions.
1939: End of the interwar period, leading into World War II, the most devastating conflict in human history.
Section 1: The Futile Search for Stability
The peace settlement post-World War I left many nations dissatisfied due to territorial disputes, economic hardships, and unresolved nationalistic aspirations.
The League of Nations was unable to handle ensuing crises because of its weak structure, lack of enforcement power, and the absence of key global powers like the United States.
A brief period of prosperity in Europe during the early 1920s ended with the Great Depression in 1929, causing widespread economic hardship and social unrest.
The economic collapse led to a loss of confidence in political democracy and the rise of extremist parties that promised radical solutions to the crisis.
Uneasy Peace, Uncertain Security
Discontent with the Treaty of Versailles and a weak League of Nations led to new problems such as unresolved territorial claims and the rise of nationalist movements.
Border disputes in eastern Europe persisted, creating tensions and conflicts among newly formed and existing nations.
Many Germans sought to revise the Treaty of Versailles, viewing it as unjust and seeking to restore Germany's pre-war status and territories.
A Weak League of Nations
President Woodrow Wilson hoped the League of Nations would prevent future conflicts by providing a forum for peaceful resolution of disputes and collective security.
The U.S. failure to join the League weakened it significantly, as the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles due to concerns over sovereignty and entanglement in European affairs.
League members couldn't agree on using force against aggression, undermining its ability to enforce international law and maintain peace.
French Demands
France demanded strict enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles for security, particularly concerning Germany's disarmament and reparations payments.
Germany was required to make reparations of billion German marks (approximately billion U.S. dollars) payable in annual installments of billion marks, placing a significant burden on the German economy.
After Germany's financial crisis and inability to pay reparations, France occupied the Ruhr Valley to collect reparations by controlling mines and factories, further destabilizing the German economy and provoking nationalist resentment.
The German government responded with passive resistance, leading to worker strikes and the printing of more paper money, which caused hyperinflation, destroying the savings of ordinary Germans.
In 1914, marks equaled $1 U.S. dollar.
By November 1, 1923, it took billion marks to equal $1 dollar, illustrating the catastrophic impact of hyperinflation.
By the end of November 1923, the ratio had increased to trillion marks to $1 dollar, rendering the German currency worthless.
The Dawes Plan reduced reparations and coordinated Germany’s annual payments with its ability to pay. It also granted an initial million loan for German recovery, opening the door to American investment in Europe and providing a temporary economic boost.
In 1925, The Treaty of Locarno guaranteed Germany’s new western borders with France and Belgium, improving relations and fostering a sense of security in Western Europe.
The Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928, signed by sixty-three nations, renounced war as an instrument of national policy, but lacked enforcement measures, making it largely symbolic.
The Great Depression
Underlying economic problems and the U.S. stock market crash triggered the Great Depression, leading to a global economic crisis.
The period of prosperity in Europe ended with an economic collapse, causing widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest.
Causes of the Depression
Downturns in individual economies during the second half of the 1920s, with falling prices for farm products due to overproduction, creating financial strain on farmers.
An international financial crisis involving the U.S. stock market; European prosperity had been built on U.S. bank loans to Germany, making Europe vulnerable to economic shocks in the United States.
The U.S. stock market crashed in October 1929, leading to the withdrawal of American investments from Germany and other European markets, causing a domino effect of economic collapse.
This caused the collapse of banks, a slowdown in trade, declining industrial production, and rising unemployment, creating a vicious cycle of economic decline.
Responses to the Depression
Governments lowered wages and raised tariffs, worsening the crisis by decreasing consumer spending and restricting international trade.
Increased government intervention in the economy and a renewed interest in Marxist ideas as people sought solutions to the economic crisis.
People turned to political leaders offering simple solutions in return for dictatorial power, leading to the rise of extremist regimes.
Unemployment, 1928–1938
During 1932, nearly 1 in 4 British workers was unemployed, highlighting the severe impact of the Depression on the British economy.
About 5.5 million Germans, roughly 30 percent of the labor force, had no jobs, fueling social unrest and political instability.
Political Effects of the Great Depression
Increased government activity in the economy as states attempted to manage the crisis through interventionist policies.
Renewed interest in Marxist ideas, offering a critique of capitalism and advocating for radical social change.
Rise of extremist political parties promising simple solutions and strong leadership, capitalizing on popular discontent.
Democratic States
The Depression shook people’s confidence in political democracy, leading to disillusionment with traditional political systems.
Most European states had democratic governments in 1919, but this trend was difficult to maintain due to post-war turmoil, economic crises, and social divisions.
Germany
The Weimar Republic was created after Imperial Germany ended in 1918, establishing a democratic government.
The Weimar Republic faced economic problems, runaway inflation, and the Great Depression, paving the way for extremist parties such as the Nazis.
By December 1930, unemployment had grown to million people, contributing to social unrest and political polarization.
France
France suffered financial problems after the war and entered a period of political chaos, characterized by unstable governments and social unrest.
In June 1936, a coalition of leftist parties formed the Popular Front government, which implemented a program called the French New Deal.
The French New Deal provided workers with collective bargaining rights, a 40-hour workweek, a two-week paid vacation, and a minimum wage, improving working conditions and social welfare.
Great Britain
Industries declined after the war, leading to unemployment and economic stagnation.
The Labour Party failed to solve economic problems and fell from power in 1931, leading to a change in government.
A new government led by the Conservatives claimed credit for bringing Britain out of the Depression through policies such as protectionism and fiscal austerity.
Political leaders largely ignored the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who advocated for government intervention and deficit spending to stimulate demand.
The United States
The Great Depression greatly affected the United States, leading to widespread unemployment and poverty.
By 1932, industrial production had fallen almost 50 percent from its 1929 level, and there were over 12 million unemployed, illustrating the severity of the economic crisis.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt won the 1932 election and implemented the New Deal, which included public works programs and social legislation, such as the Social Security Act.
In 1938, American unemployment still stood at more than 10 million; full employment was only achieved with World War II, demonstrating the limitations of the New Deal in fully resolving the Depression.
Section 2: The Rise of Dictatorial Regimes
European democracy was under threat after World War I due to economic instability, social unrest, and the rise of extremist ideologies.
New dictatorships emerged in Italy and Russia, while other Western states maintained authoritarian regimes, signaling a shift away from democratic governance.
The Rise of Dictators
Totalitarian states aimed to control the political, economic, social, intellectual, and cultural lives of their citizens through propaganda, surveillance, and repression.
These regimes were led by a single leader and party, rejecting limited government power and individual freedoms, emphasizing the supremacy of the state.
Fascism in Italy
Italy experienced severe economic problems after World War I, including inflation, unemployment, and social unrest.
Benito Mussolini established the first European fascist movement in Italy in the early 1920s, promising order, strength, and national glory.
Fascism glorifies the state above the individual and emphasizes a strong central government led by a dictatorial ruler, suppressing any opposition and promoting national unity.
Mussolini’s Rise to Power
Mussolini and the Fascists threatened to march on Rome in 1922, leading King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint Mussolini as prime minister to avoid a potential civil war.
Mussolini gradually created a Fascist dictatorship by outlawing other political parties and establishing a secret police (OVRA) to monitor and suppress dissent.
By 1926, Mussolini ruled Italy as Il Duce (“The Leader”), consolidating his power and establishing a totalitarian regime.
The Fascist State
Mussolini used various means to establish complete control over the Italian people, including propaganda, censorship, and repression.
The OVRA monitored citizens' political activities and enforced government policies through surveillance and intimidation.
The Fascists controlled mass media to spread propaganda, glorifying the regime and indoctrinating the population.
Fascist youth groups aimed to create disciplined, war-loving Italians, instilling nationalist values and preparing them for military service, but traditional social attitudes were largely maintained.
Mussolini never achieved the same degree of totalitarian control as Hitler or Stalin due to compromises with traditional institutions like the armed forces and the Catholic Church, which retained some autonomy.
The regime recognized the sovereign independence of Vatican City and Catholicism as the state religion, gaining support from the Catholic Church and legitimizing Fascist rule.
In all areas of Italian life under Mussolini and the Fascists, a large gap existed between Fascist ideals and practices, as the regime often failed to fully implement its policies and control every aspect of society.
A New Era in the USSR
Stalin maintained total power by murdering his political opponents through purges, show trials, and assassinations.
Lenin followed a policy of war communism during the civil war, controlling industries and seizing grain from peasants to supply the Red Army.
After the war, peasants began to sabotage the Communist program, and a terrible famine occurred between 1920 and 1922, resulting in millions of deaths.
Lenin’s New Economic Policy
Lenin abandoned war communism in favor of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in March 1921, relaxing state control over the economy to revive agricultural production.
The NEP allowed peasants to sell their produce openly, and retail stores and small industries could be privately owned, providing incentives for economic activity.
Heavy industry, banking, and mines remained in government hands, maintaining state control over key sectors of the economy.
The Soviet Union
Lenin and the Communists created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922, consolidating Communist power over a vast territory.
The NEP saved the Soviet Union from complete economic disaster by stimulating agricultural production and trade.
Industrialization
After Lenin's death in 1924, a struggle for power began, dividing the Politburo over the future direction of the Soviet Union, with debates over economic policy and political ideology.
Leon Trotsky wanted to end the NEP and launch rapid industrialization, while another group wanted to focus on building a socialist state in Russia and continue the NEP, leading to a power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky.
The Rise of Stalin
Joseph Stalin used his position as general secretary to gain complete control of the Communist Party through patronage, manipulation, and repression.
By 1929, Stalin had removed the Bolsheviks from the Politburo and established a powerful dictatorship; Trotsky was eventually murdered in 1940, solidifying Stalin's grip on power.
Five-Year Plans
Stalin launched his First Five-Year Plan in 1928 to transform Russia from an agricultural into an industrial country through centralized planning and forced collectivization.
The Five-Year Plans emphasized maximum production of military equipment and capital goods, prioritizing heavy industry over consumer goods.
Steel production increased from 4 million to 18 million tons per year between 1928 and 1937, demonstrating the rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union.
Costs of Industrialization
The social and political costs of industrialization were enormous, with little thought given to caring for the expanded labor force, resulting in poor living conditions and exploitation of workers.
Millions lived in miserable conditions, and real wages declined significantly, causing widespread discontent and social unrest.
Collectivization eliminated private farms, with the government owning all land and peasants working it, eradicating private property and transforming the agricultural sector.
Peasants resisted collectivization, leading Stalin to step up the program; millions of peasant households were collectivized through violence and coercion.
The hoarding of food and slaughter of livestock led to widespread famine, resulting in approximately 10 million deaths, known as the Holodomor in Ukraine.
Those who resisted Stalin's programs were sent into forced labor camps in Siberia; purges removed Old Bolsheviks and other officials, eliminating any potential opposition to Stalin's rule.
The Stalin era overturned permissive social legislation and praised the family as a small collective, reinforcing traditional values and state control over social life.
Authoritarian States in the West
Authoritarian governments in the West sought to preserve the existing social order without creating a new mass society, aiming to maintain control without radical social transformation.
Eastern Europe
Parliamentary systems failed in most eastern European states due to a lack of tradition of political democracy, rural populations, and ethnic conflicts, resulting in unstable governments and authoritarian tendencies.
Powerful landowners, churches, and some members of the small middle class feared land reform and communist upheaval, looking to authoritarian governments to maintain the old system and protect their interests.
Only Czechoslovakia maintained its political democracy due to a large middle class, liberal tradition, and strong industrial base, providing a foundation for democratic governance.
Spain
Democracy failed to survive in Spain, with the Second Republic falling apart shortly after its creation in 1931 due to political polarization and social unrest.
Francisco Franco led the Spanish military forces in a revolt against the democratic government in 1936, leading to a civil war between Republicans and Nationalists.
The fascist regimes of Italy and Germany aided Franco, while the Spanish republican government was aided by foreign volunteers and the Soviet Union, turning the conflict into a proxy war between fascism and communism.
The Spanish Civil War ended when Franco's forces captured Madrid in 1939; Franco established a dictatorship that favored large landowners, businesspeople, and the Catholic clergy, consolidating power and suppressing opposition.
Because Franco’s dictatorship favored traditional groups and did not try to control every aspect of people’s lives, it is an example of an authoritarian rather than a totalitarian regime, allowing some degree of social and economic freedom.
Section 3: Hitler and Nazi Germany
Hitler and His Views
Hitler's ideas were based on racism and German nationalism, particularly anti-Semitism, believing in the superiority of the Aryan race and the inferiority of Jews.
Hitler served on the Western Front during World War I and entered politics in 1919, joining the German Workers’ Party, becoming involved in nationalist and anti-Semitic movements.
By 1921, Hitler had taken control of the party, renaming it the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi), establishing himself as the undisputed leader of the Nazi movement.
The Message of Nazism
Hitler's ideology consisted of extreme German nationalism, anti-Semitism, and anticommunism, linked together by a Social Darwinian theory of struggle, promoting the idea of racial purity and the need for German expansion.
This theory emphasized the right of superior nations to lebensraum (“living space”) through expansion and the right of superior individuals to gain authoritarian leadership over the masses, justifying aggression and domination.
While in prison, Hitler realized that the Nazis would have to attain power by legal means, not by violent overthrow of the Weimar Republic, shifting tactics to gain popular support and legitimacy.
By 1929, the Nazi Party had a national organization, and by 1932, it was the largest party in the Reichstag (German parliament), gaining significant political influence and popular support.
The Nazis Take Control
After 1930, the German government ruled by decree with the support of President Hindenburg; the Reichstag had little power, undermining democratic institutions and concentrating power in the hands of the executive.
The right-wing elites of Germany looked to Hitler for leadership, and Hindenburg agreed to allow Hitler to become chancellor in 1933, hoping to control and co-opt the Nazi movement.
The Enabling Act, passed in March 1933, gave the government the power to ignore the constitution for four years while issuing laws to deal with the country's problems, establishing a legal basis for Nazi dictatorship.
The Nazis purged the civil service of Jews and democratic elements, set up concentration camps, and abolished trade unions and political parties, eliminating opposition and consolidating Nazi control.
By the end of the summer of 1933, Hitler had established the basis for a Nazi State, transforming Germany into a totalitarian regime.
When Hindenburg died in 1934, the office of president was abolished, and Hitler became sole ruler of Germany, assuming total power and establishing a personal dictatorship.
People took oaths of loyalty to their Führer (Leader), pledging allegiance to Hitler and the Nazi regime.
The Nazi State, 1933–1939
Hitler sought to develop an Aryan racial state that would dominate Europe and the world, implementing policies to promote racial purity and German expansion.
Nazis considered Germans the true descendants and leaders of the Aryans, aiming to create a Third Reich (empire of Nazi Germany) that would last for a thousand years.
Hitler stated his goal of developing organizations to control an individuals entire life, seeking to mold German society according to Nazi ideology.
Himmler and the SS
The Schutzstaffeln (SS), led by Heinrich Himmler, maintained order through terror and ideology, enforcing Nazi policies and suppressing dissent.
Himmler aimed to further the Aryan master race by controlling the secret police, criminal police, concentration camps, and later, execution squads and death camps, implementing Nazi racial policies and carrying out the Holocaust.
Economics and Spectacles
Hitler used public works projects and grants to private construction firms to put people back to work and end the Depression, reducing unemployment and stimulating economic activity.
The massive rearmament program significantly reduced unemployment, preparing Germany for war and boosting the economy.
The Nazis used mass demonstrations and spectacles to make the German people an instrument of Hitler's policies, creating a sense of unity and supporting the regime.
Women and Nazism
Women were seen as crucial to the Aryan state as bearers of children, promoting population growth and racial purity.
Men were destined to be warriors and political leaders, while women were meant to be wives and mothers, reinforcing traditional gender roles and promoting the idea of separate spheres.
The Nazis encouraged women to pursue occupations such as social work and nursing, viewing these as compatible with their roles as mothers and caregivers.
Anti-Semitic Policies
Nazis translated anti-Semitic beliefs into anti-Semitic policies, including anti-Jewish boycotts and other measures, discriminating against Jews and excluding them from German society.
In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws defined who was considered a Jew and excluded them from German citizenship and civil rights, institutionalizing racial discrimination and laying the groundwork for further persecution.
Jews were eventually required to wear yellow Stars of David and carry identification cards, marking them for discrimination and persecution.
Kristallnacht, in November 1938, marked a violent turn, with Nazis burning synagogues, destroying Jewish businesses, and sending Jewish males to concentration camps, escalating the persecution of Jews and signaling the beginning of the Holocaust.
Jews were barred from public transportation and public buildings and prohibited from owning or working in retail stores, isolating them from the rest of society.
Section 4: Cultural and Intellectual Trends
Mass Culture and Leisure
Radio and movies were used as propaganda tools to promote Nazism, spreading Nazi ideology and influencing public opinion.
Marconi's discovery of wireless radio waves led to broadcasting facilities in the U.S., Europe, and Japan, transforming mass communication.
Full-length motion pictures emerged, becoming a form of mass entertainment, influencing culture and society.
Nazi Propaganda Film
In 1934, Leni Riefenstahl filmed the 1934 Nazi party rally in Nuremberg. The result was considered one of the greatest documentary films of all time—and a chilling piece of Nazi propaganda, glorifying the Nazi regime and shaping public perception.
The Nazi regime used the use of radio and movies for promotion, controlling the media to spread its message.
Nazi leader Joseph Goebbels created a special film division in his Propaganda Ministry, using cinema as a tool to influence public opinion.
The Uses of Leisure
After World War I, mass production increased the availability of leisure activities, changing lifestyles and consumer culture.
The Nazi regime used the Kraft durch Freude program to offer leisure activities like concerts, operas, films, tours, and sporting events to the working class, providing social control and promoting Nazi ideology.
Arts and Science
The arts, literature, and scientific breakthroughs both embraced the past and reflected uncertainty about the future, leading to new forms of expression and innovation.
Art: Nightmares and New Visions
Artistic trends reflected developments made before the war, with abstract art becoming more popular, challenging traditional forms and expressing new ideas.
The Dada movement and surrealism arose, with dadaists obsessed with the idea that life has no purpose, rejecting reason and embracing chaos.
Surrealists sought to show the greater reality beyond the world of physical appearances, such as Salvador Dalí placing recognizable objects in unrecognizable relationships, exploring the unconscious mind and challenging perceptions.
Literature: The Search for the Unconscious
The interest in the unconscious also appeared in new literary techniques, such as “stream of consciousness,” as exemplified in James Joyce's Ulysses, exploring the inner thoughts and feelings of characters.
Hermann Hesse's novels reflected the influence of Freud’s psychology and Asian religions, examining the complexities of human nature and spirituality.
His works focused on the spiritual loneliness of modern human beings in a mechanized urban society. In Siddhartha and Steppenwolf, Hesse uses Buddhist ideas to show the psychological confusion of modern existence, exploring themes of self-discovery and spiritual awakening.
Hesse's novels had a great impact on German youth in the 1920's. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1946, gaining international recognition for his works.
The Heroic Age of Physics
The physics revolution continued, with Ernest Rutherford calling the 1920s the “heroic age of physics,” as new discoveries transformed scientific understanding.
Werner Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle challenged the classical physics of Newton, suggesting that there are fundamental limits to what we can know about the universe.
Heisenberg’s theory challenged Newtonian physics and represented a new worldview, influencing philosophy and science.
The Hitler Youth
Totalitarian states created specialized clubs like the Hitler Youth to organize young people between the ages of 10 and 18, indoctrinating them with Nazi ideology and preparing them for military service.
Totalitarian movements are about the power of the spoken word, using propaganda and rhetoric to manipulate and control populations.