Avaition
Table of Contents
Pilot Qualifications
Medical Certificates
Equipment Required
Inspections and Documents
Weather Information
Flight Planning
National Airspace System
Performance and Limitations
Operation of Systems
Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM)
Human Factors
Pilot Qualifications
Requirements (FAR 61.103)
Minimum Age: 17 years old.
Language Proficiency: Must read, speak, write, and understand English.
Flight Training: Must receive flight training and logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor.
Knowledge Test: Pass the Private Pilot Knowledge Test.
Aeronautical Experience: Meet aeronautical experience requirements (FAR 61.109).
Certificates: Hold a U.S. student, sport, or recreational pilot certificate.
Medical Certificate: Hold at least a third-class medical certificate or comply with BasicMed requirements (FAR 61.23).
Privileges (FAR 61.113)
Pilot in Command (PIC): Act as PIC of an aircraft.
Compensation: Act as PIC of an aircraft for compensation or hire in connection with business if the flight is incidental to the business and does not carry passengers or cargo for hire.
Reimbursement: Can be reimbursed for search and location operating expenses.
Charity Work: Serve as PIC for charity flights.
Demonstration Flights: Demonstrate aircraft to potential buyers with at least 200 hours of flight time.
Test Flights: Test fly aircraft after major alterations.
Responsibilities of PIC
Documentation: Carry pilot's license, government-issued photo ID, and medical certificate (FAR 61.3).
Authority: The pilot is responsible for and is the final authority over the operation of the aircraft (FAR 91.3(a)).
Airworthiness: Ensure the aircraft is airworthy before flight (FAR 91.7).
In-Flight Emergencies: In an in-flight emergency, the PIC may deviate from any FAR as necessary to address the emergency (FAR 91.3(b)).
Limitations (FAR 61.113)
Compensation Restrictions: Cannot act as PIC or SIC for aircraft that carries passengers or cargo for hire.
Payment Restrictions: Cannot pay less than the pro-rata share of operating expenses.
Currency Requirements Definition
Currency: Minimum legal requirements to act as PIC under specified conditions.
Day: 3 takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90 days.
Night (or tailwheel): 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop within the preceding 90 days.
Every 24 calendar months: Must complete a Flight Review, obtain another certificate or rating, or complete at least one FAA WINGS phase.
Specific Endorsements Required (FAR 61.31)
PIC Requirements (FAR 61.56): To act as PIC.
Carrying Passengers (FAR 61.57): To carry passengers.
Tailwheel, Complex, High Performance, and High Altitude Endorsements: Necessary for specific aircraft.
Medical Certificates
FAR 61.23 - Types of Medical Certificates
1st Class (ATP)
Privileges: Only for 1st class.
Validity: 12 calendar months for under 40 years; 6 calendar months for over 40 years.
2nd Class (Commercial)
Privileges: 1st or 2nd class.
Validity: 12 calendar months for all ages.
3rd Class (Private or CFI)
Privileges: 1st, 2nd, or 3rd classes.
Validity: 60 calendar months for under 40 years; 24 calendar months for over 40 years.
BasicMed (FAR Part 68)
Available for pilots with a valid medical certificate after July 14, 2006.
Requires a physical exam every 48 months and an online course every 24 months.
Not valid for operations requiring compensation or hire.
Special Issuance (FAR 67.401)
Limited medical certificate for pilots with disqualifying conditions (e.g., mental, neurological, cardiovascular disorders).
SODA (Statement of Demonstrated Ability)
Pilots with non-progressive medical conditions can obtain a medical certificate after demonstrating the ability to operate an aircraft safely.
Equipment Required
FAR 91.205 - Required Documents (ARROW)
Airworthiness Certificate.
Registration.
Radio Operators License (required if operating internationally).
Operating Limitations (AFM/POH, supplements, placards, and markings).
Weight and Balance documents.
Annual Inspection (FAR 91.409)
Required every 12 calendar months; can count for 100-hour inspection.
Airworthiness Directives (FAR 91.403)
Mandatory compliance notices to enhance aircraft safety.
VOR Equipment Check (FAR 91.171)
Required every 30 days if operating under IFR.
100-hour Inspection (FAR 91.409)
Required if flying for hire or instruction; cannot count towards the annual inspection.
Altimeter (FAR 91.411) and Transponder (FAR 91.413)
Check required every 24 calendar months if operating under IFR.
ELT (FAR 91.207)
Requires inspections every 12 calendar months; battery replaced after cumulative use of 1 hour or ½ of useful life.
Preventive Maintenance (Appendix A Part 43)
Must be performed by the owner of the aircraft who holds a certificate of competency (e.g., private pilot certificate) for that aircraft.
Inspections (AAV1ATE)
Flying with Inoperative Instruments and Equipment (FAR 91.213)
Minimum Equipment List (MEL): Defines what can be inoperative and still legal to fly.
VFR-DAY Type Certification (Part 23).
KOEL (Kinds of Operations Equipment List).
14 CFR Part 91.205 Requirements.
Airworthiness Directives (ADs).
Things to Do with Inoperative Items
Deactivate/Remove: Ensure inoperative items don't interfere with flight.
Placard Inoperative Items: Follow guidelines as per FAR 91.213.
Log Maintenance: Document all repairs as required under FAR 91.213.
Weather Information
Weather Products
METAR
Definition: Aviation routine weather report, issued hourly.
Code: KJFK 121651Z - Issued on the 12th day at 1651 Zulu.
Details: Wind direction and speed, visibility, weather conditions (e.g., -RA), cloud cover, temperature, dew point, altimeter settings, remarks.
TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast)
Validity: Valid for 24 or 30 hours; issued 4 times daily.
Common TAF Codes include FM (from a specific time), BECMG (becoming), TEMPO (temporary conditions), PROB (probability).
Flight Planning
Navigation Techniques
Pilotage: Navigation using visual landmarks, requires map and visual referencing.
Dead Reckoning: Navigation through calculations based on heading, time, speed, wind, and distance.
Flight Plan Elements
Aircraft Information: Type, registration number, equipment codes.
Pilot Information: Name and contact details.
Departure and Destination: Airport identifiers and estimated times.
Route of Flight: Planned route with waypoints.
Estimated Time En Route (ETE): Expected flight duration.
Fuel on Board: Amount of fuel in hours/minutes.
Alternate Airports: Other nearby airports for emergencies.
Number of Souls on Board: Total individuals onboard for emergencies.
Remarks: Any additional relevant information or considerations.
National Airspace System
Airspace Classes and Requirements
Class A
Dimensions: 18,000’ MSL to FL600.
Depiction: Not depicted on charts.
Class B
Dimensions: SFC to 10,000’ MSL. Includes 30 NM radius Mode C veil around airports.
Requirements: Mode C transponder and ADS-B Out.
Class C
Dimensions: Core: 5 NM radius, SFC to 4,000’ AGL; Shelf: 10 NM radius, various bases to 4,000’ AGL.
Class D
Dimensions: 4-5 NM radius, SFC to 2,500’ AGL.
Other Classes (E and G)
E: Various bases starting at 1,200’ AGL and continuing above.
G: SFC to 1,200’ AGL in most areas.
Performance and Limitations
Stability
Static Stability: Tendency to return to equilibrium after disturbance.
Positive: Returns to the original position.
Neutral: Remains in new position.
Negative: Moves further away.
Dynamic Stability: Behavior over time.
Positive: Oscillations decrease.
Neutral: Oscillations constant.
Negative: Oscillations increase.
Load Factor Limits
Normal Category: +3.8 to -1.52 Gs.
Utility Category: +4.4 to -1.76 Gs.
Left-Turning Tendencies
Torque: Propeller spins clockwise, causing a counterclockwise roll.
P-Factor: At high AoA, the descending propeller blade produces more thrust, pulling the nose left.
Spiraling Slipstream: Propeller wash pushes the tail right, yawing the nose left.
Gyroscopic Precession: When the nose pitches up, the spinning propeller creates a force that causes right yaw.
Aerodynamics Terms
Angle of Attack (AoA): Angle between wing chord line and relative wind.
Critical AoA: AoA where airflow separates causing a stall.
Load Factor: Ratio of lift to weight; increases in turns, raising stall speed.
Drag Types
Parasite Drag: Drag from the aircraft’s structure (increases with speed).
Induced Drag: Byproduct of lift (increases at low speeds/ high AoA).
V-Speeds
Vs0: Stall speed in landing configuration.
Vs1: Stall speed in specified configuration.
Vx: Best angle of climb speed.
Vy: Best rate of climb speed.
Vfe: Max flap extended speed.
Vle: Max landing gear extended speed.
Va: Maneuvering speed.
Vno: Max structural cruising speed.
Vne: Never exceed speed.
Vref: Landing reference speed.
Vr: Rotation speed.
Vg: Best glide speed.
Density Altitude and Performance
Density Altitude: Altitude the airplane feels it's at based on air density.
Performance Impact: Higher density altitude decreases engine power and wing lift, leading to longer takeoff distances and reduced climb rates.
Operation of Systems
Instruments and Equipment
Pitot-Static System
Consists of Pitot Tube (measures ram air pressure) and Static Port (provides ambient air pressure for ASI, Altimeter, and VSI).
Instrument Markings
Red Line: 'Never exceed' speed.
White Arc: Flap operating range.
Green Arc: Normal operating range.
Yellow Arc: Caution range.
Electrical Systems
Vacuum Systems: Power gyroscopic instruments such as AI and HI.
Ice Prevention and Removal
Deicing Equipment: Remediate post-formation (e.g., pitot heat).
Anti-Icing Equipment: Prevent ice formation.
Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM)
5P Model
Plan: Assess weather, regulations, and routes.
Plane: Monitor aircraft condition.
Pilot: Evaluate fitness and workload.
Passengers: Account for distractions and experience.
Programming: Manage avionics and automation.
IMSAFE Checklist
Illness: Am I suffering from any illness?
Medication: Am I on meds affecting performance?
Stress: Am I under pressure?
Alcohol: BAC under 0.04%?
Fatigue: Am I well-rested?
Eating: Emotionally and nutritionally stable?
DECIDE Model
Detect: Identify changes.
Estimate: Assess significance.
Choose: Select action.
Identify: Plan actions.
Do: Execute promptly.
Evaluate: Review outcome.
PAVE Checklist
Pressures: Am I being pressured?
Pilot: Am I fit to fly? (Use IMSAFE)
Aircraft: Is the aircraft airworthy?
Environment: What are the route/environmental factors?
Human Factors
Hypoxia
Cause: Insufficient oxygen.
Symptoms: Headache, dizziness, impaired judgment.
Spatial Disorientation
Cause: Conflicted sensory inputs.
Action: Trust instruments.
Hyperventilation
Cause: Excessive breathing.
Symptoms: Dizziness, tingling.
Scuba Diving
Wait Times: Minimum wait times before flying post-dive.
Alcohol/Drugs (FAR 91.17)
Requirements: 8 hours from bottle to throttle, BAC below 0.04%.