Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past - CH 1

Chapter 1: Before History

Eyewitness: Lucy and the Archaeologists

  • ==Lucy== - otherwise known as AL 288-1, this skeleton was aged 25-30 yrs at her death and weighed around 25 kilos; demonstrated that the earliest ancestors to humans walked on 2 feet, could use tools, and had smaller brains (grapefruit-sized)
  • prehistory - refers to a period before writing
  • history - refers to the era after writing and reading techniques are established (to record and store information)

The Evolution of Homo Sapiens

  • %%Archaeologists, evolutionary biologists, and other interested scholars have greatly improved the general understanding of human origins of our distant ancestors%%
    • clarifies relationship between humans and animals
    • shows that humans share similarities with large apes in biology and social stance
  • %%Humans stand out as most distinctive primate species%%
    • due to small genetic differences, humans have the advantages of higher intelligence and the ability to easily manipulate the existing environment
    • tools, technology, language skills, & other means of communication & cooperation
    • allows for large potential in social and cultural developments
  • Hominids - human ancestors that date back 5 million years; creatures belonging to the family Hominidae
    • human and human-like species
    • known locations of origin: Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia
    • Australopithecus (“the southern ape”) - flourished in east Africa during long period
      • anywhere from 4 million - 1 million yrs ago
  • ==Australopithecus was not an ape but a hominid==
    • stood over 1 m (3 ft) tall, weighed 25-55 kg (55-151 lbs), and had the brain size of 500 c^3
    • walked upright on two legs
    • @@used arms independently -→ tool use@@
    • had some ability to communicate
    • able to travel deliberately to obtain items for tool-building
  • Homo erectus - “upright-walking human,” flourished from 2 mil-200,000 yrs ago
    • larger brain, 1000 cc
    • able to devise plans & coordinate activity with others
    • could obtain and distribute food via communication
    • had more sophisticated tools
    • cleavers
    • hand axes
    • @@learned about fire and cooking@@
    • %%able to migrate further to north Africa and Eurasia landmass, establishing themselves throughout temperate zones of the eastern hemisphere%%
  • Homo sapiens - “consciously thining human,” evolved 200,000 years ago and has skillfully adapted to the natural environment ever since
    • @@large brain → physical advantage in the frontal region@@
    • %%what they lacked in brawn, they made up for with intelligence%%
    • powerful weapon for survival, as it allowed them to organize more efficiently and understand the environmental structure around them
  • Language Development
    • @@Homo sapiens evolved a combination of physiological traits that was extremely unique@@ → throat with vocal cords and separate mouth cavity associated with tongue to enunciate distinctive sounds
    • eventually %%developed spoken language that far outweighed%% communicative ability of Homo erectus and other human species

Migration of Homo sapiens

  • ==Intelligence and language allowed Homo sapiens to adapt to a number of different environmental conditions while establishing the species throughout the world, even past the continent of Africa==
  • 60,000 - 15,000 yrs ago: Homo sapiens extended the human population further than it had ever been
    • %%crossed land bridges after the lowering of the world’s sea levels%%, beginning new communities in islands of Indonesia and New Guinea

The Peopling of the World

  • ==Homo sapiens arrived in Australia around 60,000 yrs ago==
  • %%Human communities established themselves in North America through crossing land bridges from Siberia to Alaska around 25,000 yrs ago%%
    • @@Homo sapien populations eventually established themselves in nearly every habitable space on the planet@@
    • “peopling of the world” → a feat that even the most resilient species, such as rats and roaches, could not complete
      • dogs and horses, as well as some plants, were transported by humans to create a more sound foundation for new communities

The Natural Environment

  • ==Homo sapiens far outweighed intelligence of others to the point where they were able to quickly recognize issues of their environment, then change them so that the odds favored their survival==
    • warmed themselves with fire and animal skins
    • had sophisticated tools and language unlike any other living being on earth
  • @@large animals began to go instinct as the Homo sapiens communities grew larger@@
    • i.e. mammoths, wooly rhinoceros, giant kangeros, mastadons
  • %%Homo sapiens became so effective, they became the deadliest competitors in the natural world%%

Paleolithic Society

  • paleolithic era - “the old stone age,'“ humans foraged plants for food and scavenged meat killed by other predators or hunted
    • extended evolution of first homonids until 12,000 yrs ago, through crop cultivation

Economy & Society of Hunting and Gathering Peoples

  • @@Relative Social Equality@@
    • ==Private property and social distinction based on wealth was not possible in a hunting and gathering society==
    • required to stalk prey, move with seasons in search of food (animals or plant life)
    • Individuals only possessed small weapons & tools that could be used and carried easily
    • With these factors in mind, hunting and gathering peoples were most likely egalitarian in nature (under the belief that all individuals were equal)
    • in absence of wealth, social distinction was likely determined off of characteristics such as the following:
      • age
      • strength
      • courage
      • intelligence
      • fertility
      • personality
  • @@Relative Gender Equality@@
    • ==All members of hunter-gatherer societies were equal, even between sexes== → everyone must contribute for the group’s survival
    • men traveled on hunting expedition
      • meat was a prized item
    • women and children scavenged edible plants near the main camp
      • plants were essential for survival
      • gatherers contridbuted more nutrients to group diet
    • @@The hunting and gathering economy also had influence on community size and organization@@
    • foraging lifestyle most likely had around 30-50 members, small bands → larger groups were unable to be as efficient
    • The survival of hunting-gathering groups depended on deeper understanding of the natural environment
  • Big-Game Hunting
    • ==Homo sapiens created special tools and plans to take down larger animals that were known to have more meat or materials== (elephants, bison, etc.)
    • @@disguises were made so that they could blend in with large groups, then they attached@@
      • showed communicative prowess and increased skill
  • Paleolithic Settlements
    • ==When food sources were extremely rich, the nomadic lifestyle was traded for semipermanent settlements==
    • Natufian society in the Mediterranean (modern-day Israel & Lebanon)
      • collected wild wheat and hunted antelope herds
    • Jomon society in central Japan
      • harvested wild buckwheat and established fishing economy
    • Chinook society in the Pacific Northwest of North America
      • flourished on wild berries, acorns, and large salmon runs
    • @@These societies had permanent dwellings in the form of longhouses that housed several hundred, but also created smaller dwellings for individual families@@
  • Paleolithic Culture
    • Neandertal peoples - named after Neander valley in western Germany; flourished in Europe and southwest Asia (200,000-35,000 yrs ago)
    • %%also known as Homo neandertalensis%%
    • ==had deliberate burial sites and rituals for the dead: used freshly picked wildflowers==
      • others used tools or animal bones
    • ==were able to produce stone blades for tools, especially for hunting==
      • later on, created beads and bracelets
      • then art, used as communication and decor
    • Venus figurines - named after Roman goddess of love, referred to small sculptures of women with exaggerated sexual features
    • reflected interest in fertility
    • suspected to increase fertility
    • @@Cave paintings are the most apparent in prehistoric art@@
    • %%can date back to 34,000-12,000 years ago%%
      • most in southern France or Northern Spain
      • involved considerable amount for guesswork → some were thought to be for aesthetic purposes, while others were meant to express one’s past or life story
      • most displayed hunting expeditions
        • used frayed twigs and crushed plants for brushes and color pigments
  • The Neolithic Era and the Transition to Agriculture
    • ==The term neolithic era means “new stone age”==
    • neolithic - referred to refinements in tool-making techniques
      • neolithic era then refers to early stages of agricultural society (12,000-6,000 years ago)
    • @@Ariculture was nearly impossible until 15,000 yrs ago after the last ice age@@
    • after the earth’s general warming of climate conditions, crop cultivation became much more reasonable
    • ==Believed that women began plant cultivation, as they were the principle gatherers in foraging communities==
    • began to nurture plants instead of only foraging them
    • %%at the same time, men began to learn that they could capture and tend to animals in similar ways, through breeding and being selective of their diet%%
    • Agricultural activity flourished worldwide
    • peoples of southwest Asia cultivated wheat & barley while domesticating sheep, goats, pigs, cattle
    • peoples of the sub-Saharan west Africa cultivated yams, okra, and black-eyed peas
    • peoples of east Asia cultivated rice, millet, soybeans, as well as pigs, chicken, and water buffalos
    • southeast Asian peoples cultivated taro, yams, coconut, breadfruit, bananas, citrus
    • peoples of Mesoamerica cultivated maize, beans, peppers, squashes, & tomatoes
    • central Andean region of South America cultivated potatoes, adding maize and beans to their diets much later
    • ^^American animals were not easily domesticated, with the exception of llamas, guinea pigs, alpacas^^
    • @@Agriculture techniques were spread rapidly due to cultivators raising crops across the globe@@
    • slash-and-burn cultivation involved slashing trees and burning said trees to create fertile soil → required constant movement and replacement
    • with these techniques and others being used easily, crops were eventually shared and spread to other areas that promoted their growth
    • ==Agricultured societies skyrocketed the growth of the human population==
    • increasing numbers & reliable sources of food led to the ability to create new established social order
      • natural sources of water also greatly supported human livelihood
      • moats and other manmade walls were created to allow the collection of water as well
    • @@With food and population expansion efforts, there could now be specialization of labor in societies@@
    • Catal Huyuk is one of the best known settlements regarding labor specialization
      • located in modern day Turkey, it grew to be a town of around 5,000 inhabitants
      • residents completed a number of tasks, from textile making, jewelry, and wood carvings as well as the usual food cultivation and hunting
      • was a center of trade for obsidian tools
    • %%the earliest of the three major craft industries was pottery%%
      • more for container use, then became decor
    • %%metallurgy (metalworking) came next, and the first metal to be maniulated was copper for its easily malleable form%%
    • %%textile production, or work with natural fibers, was next → clothing that lasted far longer than leaves or leathers was created%%
    • @@Labor specializations lead to social classes, which also lead to inequality@@
      • → land ownership was the new currency and the more one had and passed on to family, the more that wealth could grow
    • @@Neolithic culture was heavily based on the seasons, as nature dictated their survival@@
    • after noting patterns, developed a seasonal calendar for societal preservation
    • ^^Natural world also influenced religious beliefs and values^^
    • had gods that honored fertility, life cycles, and regeneration
  • ==Life became more urban in nature once specialized labor and social classes became more apparent==
    • with towns and denser populations, cities soon began to form on their own as well
    • professions and laborers became more specialized and were divided by skillset and craft
    • the earliest known cities grew from villages around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers