APHG Study Notes Units 5-7
Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land-Use Patterns and Processes
Agricultural Hearths and Domestication
Neolithic Era: Agriculture began approximately 12,000 years ago, shifting human societies from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agricultural lifestyles.
Key Agricultural Hearths:
Central America: Maize (corn) and potatoes were first domesticated.
Africa: Coffee originated here, becoming a major economic commodity.
Fertile Crescent: Wheat and barley were first cultivated in this region.
Southeast Asia: Mango and taro were domesticated.
East Asia: Rice was domesticated, a staple food for a large global population.
Animal Domestication:
New World: Llamas and turkeys were among the few domesticated animals.
Old World: Horses, chickens, and cattle were domesticated, impacting transportation, agriculture, and diets.
Columbian Exchange:
Definition: Cultural and biological exchanges between the New and Old Worlds.
Impact: Introduced new crops to Europe (potatoes, tomatoes) and brought horses and cattle to the Americas; also led to disease outbreaks among indigenous populations.
Agricultural Revolutions
First Agricultural Revolution:
Transition: Shift from hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities.
Developments: Domestication of plants and animals, use of simple tools.
Second Agricultural Revolution:
Period: Coincided with the Industrial Revolution.
Advancements: Mechanized farming tools like the McCormick reaper and the seed drill increased agricultural productivity.
Socioeconomic Impacts: Population increase, longer life expectancies, and urban migration.
Green Revolution:
Time Frame: Mid-20th century.
Innovations: High-yield crop varieties, increased use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, and further mechanization.
Aquaculture: Farming of fish in controlled environments to increase protein sources.
Goals and Outcomes: Aims to alleviate hunger by increasing food production; significantly boosted crop outputs but led to environmental concerns (pesticide use, water overuse).
Pros of the Green Revolution:
Increased Food Production: High-yield crop varieties significantly boosted food production.
Reduction in Global Hunger: Increased food availability and affordability.
Economic Gains for Farmers: Higher yields per acre increased sales and profits.
Cons of the Green Revolution:
Environmental Damage: Heavy use of chemicals led to soil degradation, water pollution, and harm to local wildlife.
Social Inequality: Wealthier landowners benefited most, widening the gap between rich and poor farmers.
Reduced Biodiversity: Monocropping reduced the genetic diversity of crops.
Intensive vs. Extensive Agriculture
Intensive Agriculture:
Characteristics: Smaller plots of land, high labor input, significant investment in technology, fertilizers, and pesticides.
Typical Use: Common in densely populated areas. Often involves growing high-value crops.
Extensive Agriculture:
Characteristics: Large areas of land with lower input of labor and capital, lower yields per hectare.
Typical Use: Predominant in less densely populated areas, suitable for crops like wheat and corn or livestock grazing.
Commercial vs. Subsistence Agriculture
Commercial Agriculture:
Definition: Farming primarily for profit; farmers grow cash crops and often engage in monocropping.
Features: Focuses on marketability and yield; heavily reliant on market trends and prices.
Subsistence Agriculture:
Definition: Farming to meet the personal needs of a farmer’s family, with little to no surplus for sale.
Features: Farmers grow a variety of crops needed for their own consumption, less reliant on market forces but more vulnerable to environmental factors.
Von Thunen Model
Overview:
Creator: Johann Heinrich von Thünen, an early 19th-century economist.
Purpose: Explains the optimal allocation of agricultural activities around a central market (CBD) based on transportation costs and land costs.
Zones Described:
Market Gardening and Dairying: Closest to the city; perishable products need quick sale, justifying high land costs.
Forestry: Next closest to the city; wood is heavy and difficult to transport.
Extensive Field Crops (Grains and Rye): Requires lots of land and are less perishable, located further from the city where land is cheaper.
Grazing: Farthest from the CBD; livestock requires significant land for grazing, which is cheaper at greater distances.
Bid Rent Theory
Definition:
An economic principle describing how the price and demand for real estate change as distance from the CBD increases.
Dynamics:
Proximity to CBD: Land closer to the CBD is more expensive, leading to higher density developments.
Agricultural Implications: As distance from the CBD increases, land costs decrease, making extensive agricultural practices economically viable.
Connection Between Theories
Integration:
The Von Thunen model applies the Bid Rent Theory to agricultural land use.
Practical Implications:
Urban Planning: Helps urban planners and developers make decisions about land use, transportation infrastructure, and zoning.
Agricultural Economics: Farmers can use these theories to decide on the types of crops to plant and where to locate their operations relative to market locations.
Settlement Patterns
Settlement patterns are influenced by economic activities, cultural practices, geographical landscape, and historical development.
Types of Settlement Patterns:
Nucleated (Clustered): Dwellings grouped together; occurs where defense or community cooperation is prioritized.
Dispersed: Homes spread out across a large area; typical in rural areas where agriculture requires extensive land use.
Linear: Dwellings arranged in a line along a road, river, or other linear feature; seen in agricultural valleys or along transportation routes.
Association with Types of Farming:
Wheat Farming: Typically associated with dispersed settlement patterns.
Wet-Rice Farming: Often found in nucleated settlements.
Examples of Settlement Patterns:
Clustered Farming Example:
Location: Ouchi-Juku, Japan.
Characteristics: Closely built houses that facilitate mutual aid and community activities.
Dispersed Farming Example:
Location: West Union, Iowa, USA.
Characteristics: Farms are spread out, maximizing land use for agriculture.
Surveying Methods
Surveying methods are crucial for determining land ownership and boundaries.
Key Survey Methods:
Long-Lot System:
Description: Narrow, rectangular plots extending from rivers, roads, or canals.
Prevalence: Commonly found in regions with French influence (Quebec, Louisiana).
Metes and Bounds:
Description: Uses natural landmarks and measurements to define parcel boundaries.
Location: Predominantly used along the East Coast of the United States.
Historical Context: Early American settlers used natural features to mark boundaries.
Township and Range:
Description: Divides land into a grid of square townships and ranges (6 miles by 6 miles), further subdivided into 36 sections of 1 square mile each.
Implementation: Adopted through the Northwest Ordinance, providing a systematic way to organize land distribution.
Implementation and Impact:
Long-Lot System: Facilitates access to resources but can lead to disputes.
Metes and Bounds: Flexible but can lead to irregular plot shapes and complex boundaries.
Township and Range: Promotes uniformity and simplicity in property records.
Agricultural Practices by Climate Zones
Humid Equatorial Climate:
Characteristics: High humidity, significant rainfall, stable temperatures year-round.
Common Agriculture: Shifting cultivation with slash and burn techniques.
Temperate Climate:
Characteristics: Moderate rainfall and temperatures with distinct seasons.
Common Agriculture: Grain production and mixed crop and livestock farming.
Dry Climate:
Characteristics: Low rainfall.
Common Agriculture: Extensive farming practices like ranching.
Cold Climate:
Characteristics: Cold temperatures with short growing seasons.
Common Agriculture: Pastoral nomadism practiced.
Intensive vs. Extensive Farming Practices
Intensive Farming:
Locations: Typically in more populated areas or where land is expensive.
Practices: High input of labor and capital; market gardening, mixed crop and livestock systems, and plantation agriculture.
Extensive Farming:
Locations: Common in less populated areas where land is cheaper.
Practices: Lower labor and capital input; shifting cultivation, ranching, and pastoral nomadism.
Globalization and Agricultural Specialization:
Impact: Countries specialize in agricultural products.
Technological Advances: Increased efficiency of food production, contributing to globalization of agriculture.
Economies of Scale:
Definition: Cost advantages due to scale of operation; cost per unit decreases with increasing scale.
Application in Agriculture: Larger farms lower costs and increase production using advanced technologies.
Commodity Chains
Definition: Series of steps involved from the production of a good to its final purchase.
Example with Coffee:
Farmer: Grows and harvests coffee beans.
Extractor: Processes the beans.
Shipper: Transports the processed coffee.
Distributor: Manages distribution to retail outlets.
Retailer: Sells the final product to consumers.
Global Food Distribution Dynamics
Involves complex interactions between political, economic, and logistical factors.
Key Components:
Neocolonialism:
Economic control over less developed countries by powerful nations.
Fair Trade:
Provides equitable trade relationships, ensuring farmers receive fair prices.
Subsidies:
Financial incentives by governments to support local farmers.
Infrastructure:
Essential for the efficient movement of goods, including transportation systems.
Impact and Considerations:
Economic and Political Influence: Food distribution reinforces economic disparities.
Sustainability and Fairness: Challenges remain regarding sustainability and the environmental impact of supply chains.
Land Cover Change (Consequence)
Definition: Transformation of the natural landscape due to agricultural expansion or urban development.
Example: Reduction in forested areas in the Mekong Basin due to agricultural expansion.
Environmental Effects Due to Agricultural Practices
Desertification:
Definition: Fertile land becomes desert due to drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.
Soil Salinization:
Cause: Improper irrigation practices leading to salt accumulation.
Increased Emissions:
Sources: Fossil fuel-powered machinery and decomposition of organic materials.
Draining of Wetlands:
Consequences: Loss of biodiversity and disruption of natural water filtration systems.
Challenges in Modern Agriculture
Distribution Issues:
Logistical challenges of exporting food to poorer countries before it spoils.
Impact of Natural Disasters:
Devastates crops and livestock, leading to food shortages.
Urban Expansion:
Suburban sprawl encroaching on farmland.
Food Deserts:
Areas with limited access to fresh, affordable foods.
Patterns of Food Production and Innovative Solutions
Urban Farming:
Growing food in urban areas.
Community-Supported Agriculture (CSA):
Members pay a subscription fee to a local farm.
Value-Added Specialty Crops:
Crops processed to add value beyond the raw product.
Gender Roles in Agriculture
Women in the Agricultural Workforce:
Current Statistics: Constitute about 40% of the global agricultural labor force.
Regional Differences: Up to 70% in subsistence farming regions.
Challenges Faced by Women in Agriculture:
Land Ownership: Often denied the right to own land.
Access to Credit: Face barriers to obtaining credit.
Farming Tools and Technologies: Unequal access to modern tools.
Importance of Gender Equality in Agriculture:
Increasing Yields: Equal rights can increase agricultural yields.
Economic Benefits: Improved economic outcomes.
Combating Hunger: Crucial step towards global food security.
Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes
Site and Situation
Site: Refers to the physical characteristics of a location.
Example: Los Angeles includes its people, resources, and landmarks.
Situation: Involves the external factors and surroundings that influence a location's development.
Example: LA's situation includes the Pacific Ocean and the Agricultural Valley of Central California.
Origins of Urbanization
Necessary Conditions:
Agricultural Surplus: Extra food to support a growing population.
Social Stratification: A social hierarchy to organize society.
Hearths of Urbanization:
Primary Hearths:
Mesoamerica
Peru
Nile Valley
Mesopotamia (Fertile Crescent)
Indus River Valley
Huang He (Yellow) River Valley
Secondary Hearths:
Greece and Rome, spreading urbanization ideas to Europe and the United States.
Urbanization in the United States
Initial Urbanization:
Started on the East Coast and spread westward with Manifest Destiny.
The Second Agricultural Revolution led to mechanization, reducing the need for farmers, and pushing people towards urban factory jobs.
Important Concepts to Remember
Agricultural Surplus: Essential for supporting a larger population.
Social Stratification: Needed for societal organization and urban growth.
Primary Hearths: Crucial for understanding the origins of urbanization.
Secondary Hearths: Shows the spread of urbanization ideas.
Mechanization and Urban Migration: Show the shift from rural to urban living.
Megacities and Metacities
Metacities: Cities with a population of 20 million or more.
Megacities: Cities with a population of 10 million or more.
Often found in semi-peripheral and peripheral regions, reflecting globalization.
Primate City and Rank-Size Rule
Primate City: A city that dominates a country's politics and population.
Example: Mexico City with a population of 12 million.
Rank-Size Rule: The rank of a city is multiplied by the population of the largest city.
Example: In the United States:
New York (largest city): 8 million
Los Angeles (second city):
Central Place Theory (CPT)
Explains the number, size, and location of human settlements in a region.
Hierarchy of Settlements:
City: Largest settlement.
Town: Smaller than a city.
Village/Hamlet: Smallest settlements, most frequent.
Example: Uruapan, Mexico:
City Level: Uruapan, a large city with extensive infrastructure.
Town Level: Smaller cities with fewer global brands.
Village/Hamlet Level: Smallest settlements with narrow streets.
Hinterland: The area served by a central place. Larger cities have a wider hinterland.
Placelessness: The loss of unique cultural identity due to the dominance of global corporations.
Settlement Density: Larger cities have higher building and population density.
Key Points of CPT:
Settlement Distribution: Larger settlements are fewer and spaced further apart.
Service Range: Larger cities offer a wider range of services.
Economic Activity: Cities with greater economic activity attract more infrastructure.
Urban Models
Concentric Zone Model:
Origin: Modeled after Chicago.
Structure:
Central Business District (CBD)
Zone of Transition
Zone of Independent Workers' Homes
Zone of Better Residences
Commuter Zone
Hoyt-Sector Model:
Divided into pie-shaped sectors radiating out from the CBD.
Transportation and Industry sectors extended from the CBD; higher-income residential areas are typically along scenic routes.
Multiple Nuclei Model:
A city with multiple centers of activity rather than a single CBD.
Manufacturing areas close to lower-class residential; upper-class areas farther from industrial zones.
Key Points Across Models:
Class Segregation: Lower-class areas are not adjacent to upper-class areas.
Industrial Proximity: Lower-class areas are closer to industrial and manufacturing zones.
Transportation Influence: Access to transportation affects the layout.
Suburbanization: The development of suburbs further from the CBD.
Borchert's Epochs of Urbanization
Overview: Urban development correlates with transportation methods.
Wagon and Sail Epoch (1790-1830)
Limited to human and animal-powered transportation.
Urban Development constrained within a small radius from the CBD.
Iron Horse Epoch (1830-1870)
Introduction of Railroads: Regional development of rail systems.
Urban Expansion: Allowed people to settle further from the CBD, extending the hinterland.
Steel Rail Epoch (1870-1920)
Large-scale development of railroads connecting distant cities.
Significant expansion of urban areas, particularly in the Midwest.
Automobile Epoch (1920-1970)
Introduction of personal vehicles.
Enabled suburban growth as people could live further from the city center and commute by car.
High Tech Epoch (1970-present)
Growth of urban areas around technology hubs, colleges, and universities.
Foreign Urban Models
Common Denominators:
Industrial/Manufacturing Zone: Close to poorer regions due to pollution and access to work.
Traditional CBD Variations:
Latin American Model: Market, CBD, and a Spine.
Southeast Asian Model: Port Zone.
Sub-Saharan African Model: Three different CBDs (Colonial, Traditional, Market).
Infrastructure Integration: Roads and freeways directly within the models (notably in Latin American and Sub-Saharan African models).
Latin American City Model
Structure: Squatter Settlements/Favelas on the outskirts, Transition Zones, Upper Class and Spine closer to the center.
The spine often features elite residential sectors.
Southeast Asian City Model
Mix of classes with squatter areas and suburbs.
Port Zone as CBD, colonial influence.
Sub-Saharan African City Model
Ethnic neighborhoods, three CBDs: Colonial, Traditional, and Market.
Major roads often separate ethnic and mixed neighborhoods.
Galactic City Model:
Combines edge cities.
Edge Cities:
Large nodes of retail activities located on the peripheries of urban areas.
Key Characteristics of Edge Cities:
Retail and Commercial Hubs
Population Patterns: Experience a decline in population during the night.
Infrastructure: Reliance on freeways.
Environmental Concerns: Increased traffic.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
Qualitative Data:
Non-numerical data.
Examples: interviews, anecdotes, observations, open-ended surveys.
Quantitative Data:
Numerical data.
Examples: Traffic accidents, tickets, emissions, average traffic speeds.
Zoning
Dividing a city into sections for different purposes (residential, commercial, industrial).
Types of Zoning:
Low-Density Residential:
*Areas for houses and single-family homes.High-Density Residential:
*Areas for apartment complexes and condominiums.Low-Density Commercial:
Areas for small businesses and single-story offices.
High-Density Commercial:
Zones for larger commercial buildings, including skyscrapers.
Redlining and Blockbusting
Discriminatory practices affecting urban development.
Redlining:
Refusing loans in specific geographic areas (minority populations).
Blockbusting:
Scaring white homeowners into selling their homes at low prices.
Suburbanization
The movement of people from city centers to the outskirts.
Forms of Suburbs:
Exurbs:
Suburbs located beyond main suburban areas, typically more rural and less densely populated.
Boomburbs:
*Suburban areas experiencing rapid growth.
Urban Sustainability
Creating cities that improve the quality of life while minimizing negative impacts on the environment.
Strategies for Urban Sustainability:
Urban Walkability and Public Transit
New Urbanism
Brownfielding
Greenbelts
Infilling
Challenges to Urbanization
Gentrification:
Urban redevelopment displacing lower-income residents.
Infrastructure Development:
Economic: Bridges, roads, public transit systems.
Social: Schools, hospitals, community centers.
Environmental Challenges
Urban Sprawl:
Uncontrolled expansion of urban areas.
Pollution:
Increased vehicle emissions and industrial activities.
Social and Economic Inequality
Housing Affordability:
Increased cost of living.
Access to Services:
* Unequal access to essential services.
Social Economic Inequality Cont.
Employment Opportunities:
While urban areas may offer more job opportunities, the competition and demand can also lead to unemployment and underemployment for certain segments of the population.
*
Effective urban planning requires coordination between multiple levels of government and various stakeholders, which can be challenging.
Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Development Patterns and Processes
Industrial Revolution Beginnings in the 1700s
Location: England
Key Resources: Coal and iron
Technological Advancements:
Bessemer Process
Steam Engine
Spinning Jenny
Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution
Mainland Europe: Spread through rivers and other trade routes.
*Japan and the United States: Eventually reached these regions, leading to significant industrial growth.
Industrial regions in the United States
*New England: Initial region of industrialization; later became known as the Rust Belt due to deindustrialization.
*Sunbelt: Experienced technological development and a population boom in the 1960s.
*Corn Belt: Significant agricultural region.
Impacts of the Industrial Revolution
Agricultural surplus and population boom
*Technology and Resources: Led to more efficient farming tools and increased food availability.
*Population Growth: Higher food availability led to a population boom.
*Urbanization: Surplus in agricultural productivity meant fewer farmers were needed, leading to migration into cities for factory work.
Economic Sectors
Understanding the various economic sectors is crucial for analyzing how economies function and develop. These sectors are typically divided into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sectors.
Primary Sector
Definition: The primary sector involves the extraction and production of raw materials.
Example: Agriculture, mining, forestry, fishing.
Importance: Provides the basic materials for goods and services and is foundational for developing economies.Secondary Sector
Definition: The secondary sector involves the manufacturing and processing of raw materials into finished goods.
Examples: Factories, construction, food processing.
Importance: Adds value to raw materials by transforming them into products, contributing significantly to economic growth.Tertiary Sector
Definition: The tertiary sector involves the provision of services rather than goods.
Examples: Retail, healthcare, education, banking.
Importance: Supports both the primary and secondary sectors and is crucial for the functioning of the economy.
*Quaternary Sector
Definition: The quaternary sector involves knowledge-based activities focused on research and development, technology, and information.
Examples: IT services, research, consultancy.
Importance: Drives innovation and technological advancement, essential for modern economies.
*Quinary Sector
Definition: Involves high-level decision-making in the economy and politics.
Examples: CEOs (e.g., Elon Musk), Presidents, Congress members, Governors
Rostow’s Model of Development
Rostow's model outlines the stages countries go through as they develop economically.It helps explain how economies grow and transform over time.
Traditional Society
Mostly subsistence agriculture, where people grow food mainly to feed themselves.
Barter trading, meaning goods are exchanged directly without money.
Limited technology and simple societal structures.
*Precondition for Take-Off
Job specialization begins, leading to more efficient systems and processes.
Agricultural surplus, meaning there is extra food that can support a growing population.
Development in infrastructure, such as roads and communication networks.
*Take-Off
Rapid growth in manufacturing and secondary jobs (like factory work).
Urbanization, as more people move to cities for work in these new industries.
*Drive to Maturity
The economy diversifies, moving away from just factories to include more varied industries.
Higher use of technology in all sectors, improving productivity and innovation.
*High Mass Consumption
The service sector (jobs like retail, healthcare, education) becomes dominant.
Higher levels of GDP per capita, indicating a wealthier population with more spending power.
Criticisms of Rostow's Model
*Colonialism The model doesn't consider how colonial history can limit a country's development by stripping it of resources and economic independence.
Carrying Capacity:It overlooks the limits of natural resources, which could prevent a country from expanding its economy indefinitely.
*Dependency Theory This theory argues that some countries remain underdeveloped because they are economically dependent on wealthier countries, challenging the idea that all countries can simply progress through Rostow's stages.
*Core: High consumption and purchasing power,High levels of education, Advanced technology and infrastructure ,Dominance in tertiary and quaternary sectors (services, information, and technology).
*PeripheryFocus on extracting raw materials, Low-skilled labor Emphasis on primary and secondary sectors (agriculture, mining, and basic manufacturing),Limited economic development and lower levels of education.
*Semi-Periphery A mix of production and consumption activities Mostly industrial in natureTransitional economies that are not as developed as the core but more advanced than the periphery Example: China, with its strong industrial job sector and growing consumer base.
Dependency Theory Example: Neocolonialism, Modern example: The BRICS are emerging from this system transitioning.
Webers Least Cost Model
Webers Least Cost Model explains the optimal location of industrial and manufacturing plants based on minimizing three main costs: labor, transportation, and agglomeration.
*Labor:Concept: Factories will be located in regions where labor is available and cheap.
*Aggregation Concept: Similar companies will establish their manufacturing zones near each other to take advantage of shared infrastructure and skilled labor.
*Transportation Concept: The cost of transportation depends on whether the industry is bulk-gaining or bulk-reducing.
Optimal location: Close to the market to minimize transportation costs of the heavy, finished product Bulk-Reducing IndustriesProducts decrease in volume or weight after manufacturing:Example: Paper ProductionRaw Material: TreesFinished Product: Sheets of paper (lighter and smaller): Optimal location: Close to the raw materials to process them.
Measurement of Development
Understanding development involves examining various economic and social indicators. Here are some key measurements:
*Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Definition:
The total value of all goods and services produced within a country: Example: Profits from fast-food restaurants like Jollibee- Philippines), Yoshinoya (Japan),and McDonald's (USA) operating within the US contribute to the US GDP.
*Gross National Product (GNP)Definition: The total value of goods and services produced by a country’s nationals, regardless of where they are located.
Fertility Rate Average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime Nigeria(high) vs Australia (Low) -Traditional Gender Roles better education
Infant Mortality Rate: Number of infants who die before their first birthday per 1,000 live births Access to healthcare.
*Literacy RateDefinition: The percentage of people who can read and write.Higher education levels lead to more quaternary (research and development) and quinary (high-level decision-making) jobs, contributing to a higher overall GDP.
Measurement of development HDI/GII
Economic Indicators:Gross Domestic Product (GDP). GrossNationalProduct (GNP) Gross National income(GNI)
*Human Development Index (HDI). Definition: A composite index measuring key dimensions of human development.
*Components:Life Expectancy: The average age a person is expected to liveGNI per Capita: Average income per person in a countryEducation: The percentage of students attending secondary and post-secondary schools.
*Gender Inequality Index (GII) : Definition: Measures development based on women’s rights and opportunities
Definition: Small loans provided to women to help them start businesses or further their education.Example: In the documentary “Living on a Dollar”.
Complementary Advantages Definition: Advantages gained by countries through producing goods that complement each other. Japan + Thailand car tire industry.
*Competitive Edge Definition: When a country can produce a good more efficiently than another country due to environmental or other factors. Example Egypt imports banana's from India.
*Tariffs Definition: Taxes imposed by governments on imported goods to protect domestic industries. Example The Government adds taxes to products to encourage people to buy local.
Organizations and Trade:Neoliberal policies & free trade aggreements
Definition: Definition: Policies and agreements promoting free trade between countries to reduce or eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers.Examples:OPEC EU, Mersocur.
Neoliberal Policies and Free Trade Agreements:Promoting free trade between Countries to reduce or eliminate tariffs. Example EU + NATO + trade Benefits: - free trade Schegen area (free travel without passport)
Definiton: Organization that promotes free trade- WTO- Doesn't guarantee tariff reduction between members.
*Benefits-Economic Growth- Increased Market Access- Efficient resource allocation.Drawbacks Economic interdependence and globalization: Interconnected debt and crisisOutsourcing- Decline in secondary work due to it being transported oversees.
*Economic Interdependence and Globalization-Benefit;Economic Growth Drawbacks;Interconnected Debt.
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)Definition
Definiton: Areas in a country where business and trade laws differ from the rest of the country to attract foreign investment and stimulate economic growth. Examples in: China, Shantou + Xaimon. Benefits: Tax breaks/ relaxed trade regulations + increase foreign investment.
Definiton: A type of SEZ where goods can be stored, reconfigured, and re-exported without being subjected to taxes and tariffs-Acts as a middle man that processes/repackages goods before reaching consumers Located in developing countries- to exploit cheap wages.Attract foreign investments + creates jobs.
Export Processing Zones (EPZs)DefinitionDefiniton:A specific zone focussed on manufactering exportsBenefitsattract foreign investmentcreates jobsgenerates incoime citizensExample maquicladoras in Mexico. The proximity to the US ensures rediced transport costs time for both US corporations + local mexico.
Fordism and Post-FordismDefinition
Fordism Definition: Early 1990's assembly line manufacturing processHenry Ford Key Characteristics: Assembly line standardisation massive inventory.
*Post Fordism Definition: Present Day FlexibilityJust in time deliver System Customisation Reliance on machinesExampleIPhone Design USA assembly.China resources worldwide
Sustainable Development Environmental Challenges: Resources being depleted pollution + unsustainable mass consumption global warming. Concept: Promotes tourism, hospitality and is enviromentally friendly Example ecotourism spot Thailand.
UN Sustainable Development Goals
Main Goal 2030:
End Poverty,
Maintian maintain peace,
Protect the planet
Maintain hunger, Maintain healh, achieve gender equality, Responsibe sonsumption +protect life on earth.)Protect Life on Earth:Safeguarding ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural habitats.