Unit 4: The Age of Jefferson, Jackson, and the Market Revolution Notes

Big Picture Ideas of the Early 19th Century

• The Democratic-Republican party maintained political dominance during the early $1800s$, characterized by the presidencies of Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe.

• The expansion of the electorate through universal white male suffrage preceded the election of war hero Andrew Jackson in $1828$. Jackson is recognized as the first "commonly" elected President of the United States.

• The Market Revolution encompassed more than the technological innovations of the Industrial Revolution; it fundamentally altered American labor systems, consumerism habits, and the national economy.

• Henry Clay served as a pivotal figure in shaping the nation through his "American System" and his role in easing regional hostilities between the North and South via the Missouri Compromise.

• The Second Great Awakening arose as a spiritual response to the pressures of industrialization, resulting in numerous social and moral reform movements aimed at correcting perceived societal ills.

The Age of Thomas Jefferson

• Key Beliefs of the Democratic-Republican Party:     * Adherence to a strict interpretation of the Constitution.     * Support for an economy centered on agriculture and farming interests.     * Advocacy for aiding the French during the French Revolution.     * Favoring decentralized power with stronger state governments.     * Belief that Alexander Hamilton’s National Bank was unconstitutional.

• Significant Foreign Policy Events:     * The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: An incident where the British ship Leopard fired upon the U.S.S. Chesapeake, resulting in the deaths of $3$ Americans and a significant surge in anti-British sentiment.     * Barbary Pirates: Jefferson took action to protect American merchant ships from harassment by these Mediterranean-based pirates.

• The Louisiana Purchase: Despite his status as a strict constructionist, Jefferson adopted a loose interpretation of the Constitution to authorize the Louisiana Purchase, an act that doubled the total land area of the United States.

• Political Criticism - The "Ograbme" Cartoon ($1807$):     * This political cartoon depicts an embargo as a turtle (spelling "embargo" backwards) biting a merchant.     * The point of view represents merchants who were severely financially damaged by Jefferson’s embargo policies.

The Marshall Court and Landmark Judicial Rulings

• Marbury v. Madison: This case established the principle of Judicial Review, granting the Supreme Court the authority to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.

• McCulloch v. Maryland: The court determined that the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution gave Congress the implied power to establish a national bank.

• Gibbons v. Ogden: The court ruled that the Commerce Clause granted Congress the exclusive right to regulate interstate trade.

• Worcester v. Georgia: The court recognized the Cherokee nation as a "distinct political community," ruling that individual states lacked the authority to impose regulations on Native American lands.

The War of 1812 and the Era of Good Feelings

• Causes of the War of $1812$:     * The impressment of American sailors into the British Navy.     * The continued presence of British military forts on American soil.     * The British providing weaponry to Native American groups in the Northwest Territory.

• Effects of the War of $1812$:     * A significant increase in American nationalism.     * A boost in domestic manufacturing, particularly in New England.     * The economic downturn known as the Panic of $1819$.

• Decline of the Federalist Party:     * The Hartford Convention: Radical Federalists in New England discussed potential secession, leading the public to view the party as traitorous.     * The death of Alexander Hamilton, the party's foundational leader, left a void in leadership.

• Tariff of $1816$: This tariff was designed specifically to protect nascent American manufacturing from being overwhelmed by a flood of British goods after the war.

• Characteristics of the Era of Good Feelings ($1814$ to $1824$):     * High levels of national pride following the victory over Britain.     * Political harmony (or the illusion thereof) created by the existence of only one major political party: the Democratic-Republicans.     * Rapid economic expansion and significant westward migration.

• Diplomatic Milestones:     * Adams-Onis Treaty: Negotiated by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, this treaty resulted in the acquisition of Florida from Spain.     * Monroe Doctrine: A foreign policy declaration warning European powers to stay out of the Western Hemisphere. It stated that any European interference or further colonization in the Americas would be viewed as an act of aggression.

• The Missouri Compromise: This agreement addressed the tension over slavery in new territories through three provisions:     * Missouri entered the Union as a slave state.     * Maine entered the Union as a free state.     * Slavery was prohibited in the Louisiana Territory north of the $36^{\circ} 30^{\prime}$ latitude line and permitted south of it.

• Henry Clay's American System: This plan included three pillars designed to unify the economy:     * A protective tariff to encourage domestic industry.     * A second national bank to stabilize currency and support trade.     * Federal funding for internal improvements, such as the construction of roads and canals.

The Age of Andrew Jackson

• Comparative Analysis of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy:     * Similarities: Both favored an agricultural economy, shared a deep distrust for the national bank, and prioritized states' rights over central federal authority.     * Differences in Governance: Jefferson sought to diminish the federal government, whereas Jackson significantly expanded executive powers. Jefferson favored the elite planter class, while Jackson championed the "common man."     * Differences in Education: Jefferson viewed education as a prerequisite for office-holding; Jackson believed any citizen should be capable of serving.

• The Election of $1824$ ("The Corrupt Bargain"): Jackson won the popular and electoral plurality but lost the presidency. The House of Representatives, led by Henry Clay, chose John Quincy Adams. Subsequently, Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State, leading to allegations of a private deal.

• Universal White Male Suffrage: During this era, property-owning requirements for voting were abolished, allowing all white males the right to vote regardless of wealth.

• Major Criticisms of Jackson’s Presidency:     * Spoils System: Jackson was criticized for awarding government positions based on political loyalty rather than merit or qualification.     * Indian Removal: Despite the ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that protected Native lands, Jackson pursued removal policies, seen as an illegal defiance of the Supreme Court.     * The Bank War: Jackson vetoed the recharter of the Second Bank of the United States (BUS). Critics argued this ignored the McCulloch v. Maryland ruling and that the executive branch does not have the right to determine constitutionality.     * The Force Bill: This authorized the use of the military to collect tariffs from states, which opponents viewed as a gross abuse of presidential power.

• Post-Jackson Challenges under Martin Van Buren:     * The Trail of Tears: The forced relocation of Native Americans resulting from Jackson's Indian Removal Act.     * The Panic of $1837$: A financial crisis triggered by the destruction of the National Bank.

• The Whig Party: Formed under the leadership of Henry Clay, this party was united by a shared opposition to Jackson and concerns following the Panic of $1819$. Notable Whig presidents include William Henry Harrison and John Tyler.

The Market Revolution and Technological Innovation

• Geographic Economic Shifts: The North underwent a textile manufacturing revolution. The South and West remained agricultural but were transformed by mechanical innovations.

• Key Innovations by Sector:     * Textiles: The Lowell Mills, the Spinning Jenny, the Singer Sewing Machine, and the Power Loom.     * Transportation: The National Road, the Steam Boat, the expansion of Railroads, and the Erie Canal.     * Agriculture: The Cotton Gin, the Mechanical Reaper, and John Deere’s Steel Plow.

• The Erie Canal: This infrastructure project linked the East and West, facilitating cheaper/efficient transport of goods and people, which stimulated migration and the growth of urban centers along waterways.

• Economic and Social Impacts:     * Shift toward factory-based production and textile mills.     * Transition to wage labor (hourly or weekly pay).     * Increased participation of women and children in the industrial workforce.

• Eli Whitney’s Interchangeable Parts: This innovation allowed for mass production using unskilled labor to perform repetitive tasks. It lowered costs for consumers and introduced the concept of replacement parts.

• The Telegraph: Enabled instantaneous communication, increasing government efficiency and allowing businesses to coordinate across greater distances.

• Immigration Trends ($1820$-$1860$):     * Massive influx from Ireland (driven by the Potato Famine) and Germany (due to political turmoil).     * Many immigrants filled factory jobs, leading to a rise in "nativism" (anti-immigrant sentiment).

American Identity and Social Reform

• Cult of Domesticity: A social standard that reinforced the role of women as second-class citizens restricted to the home as homemakers. This "sphere of influence" primarily affected the middle and upper classes, as lower-class women were often forced to work outside the home for survival.

• The Hudson River School: Led by artists like Thomas Cole, this movement focused on the American landscape and nature. It was the first distinct "American" art style, separating the nation's culture from European traditions.

• The Second Great Awakening: Inspired by the social changes of the Market Revolution, it used religious revivalism to address industrial problems, such as alcoholism. It also saw the rise of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon Church), founded by Joseph Smith, who became a martyr in $1844$.

• Reform Movements:     * Temperance: Targeted the elimination of alcohol consumption and its associated societal evils.     * Education: Horace Mann advocated for compulsory public education.     * Asylum/Prison Reform: Dorothea Dix campaigned for the humane treatment of the mentally ill.     * Transcendentalism: A literary and philosophical movement rooted in romanticism focusing on realism and the individual.     * Utopian Movements: Groups like New Harmony and Oneida attempted to create perfect, communal societies.

• Women’s Rights and the Seneca Falls Convention:     * Causes: Resentment over the lack of voting/social rights and the secondary status of women within the abolitionist movement.     * Effects: The creation of the "Declaration of Sentiments" and the establishment of an annual meeting to discuss women's social, political, and religious roles.

• The Abolitionist Movement:     * Frederick Douglass: An escaped slave who used writing (The North Star) and lectures to push for political change.     * David Walker: A more radical figure who authored An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, calling for black unity and direct action.     * Nat Turner’s Rebellion: A violent slave uprising that resulted in the execution of Turner and his followers. It effectively ended anti-slavery sentiment in the South and led to much harsher slave codes.     * Pro-Slavery Defense: John C. Calhoun notoriously defended slavery as a "Positive Good," arguing it was more beneficial for the worker than the labor conditions found in Northern factories.