AP US Government - Unit 4

4.1 - American Attitudes about Gov. & Politics

The core beliefs of U.S. citizens and their attitudes about the role of government are closely related. Five values are generally shared by Americans:

  • Individualism: Emphasis on self-reliance and independence. Americans are generally less community-oriented compared to various eastern cultures.

  • Equality of opportunity: Every American deserves equal footing to pursue life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, regardless of race, ethnicity, sex, or religion.

  • Free enterprise: Americans generally prefer minimal government intervention in the economy (laissez-faire).

  • Rule of law: Every citizen is equal under the law; no one has special privileges. As John Adams said, "Ours is a government of laws, not of men."

  • Limited government: The government's limits are well defined and restrained through the separation of powers and the system of checks and balances.

Competing Interpretations

Even though many Americans agree on these values in principle, there are various competing interpretations of them.

Conservatives vs. Liberals

  • Conservatives: Cherish established institutions and seek to preserve them for the good of society. They tend to emphasize smaller government.

  • Liberals: Push for new reforms to make society more just and equitable. They tend to embrace government intervention..

Interpretations of Core Values

  • Individualism

    • Conservative - Self-centered individualism: Emphasizes the interest of the individual above the interests of society.

    • Liberal - Enlightened individualism: Emphasizes the interests of society above the interest of the individual.

  • Equality of Opportunity

    • Conservative Believe in the power of meritocracy, which is to say everyone rises in America based on their own toil and sweat. Aka, anyone can make it as long as they work hard enough.

      • Believe equality is superior to equity

    • Liberal - Agree with the idea of a meritocracy, but believe that not all groups start that climb in the same place.

      • Believe Equity is superior to Equality

  • Free Enterprise / Markets

    • Conservative - Want hands-off government

    • Liberal - Supports government business regulations

  • Government Size

    • Conservative - Want small government

    • Liberal - Want large governments

4.2 - Political Socialization

Political Socialization - How people develop their political beliefs

Factors that influence political beliefs:

  • Family Influence

    • Children often hold the same or similar political opinions as their parents.

      • Politics are often discussed at home, and children pick up these ideas.

    • Younger voters often rely on their parents' political ideology when casting their first ballots.

    • While social media has weakened this connection, the family remains a significant early influence on political ideology.

  • Schools' Role

    • Education can shape how a student thinks about politics.

  • Peer Interactions

    • Social conformity plays a significant role in what a person believes.

    • There is social pressure to conform beliefs to the peer group, even if it's not direct.

  • Media Impact

    • Increased access to a wide range of viewpoints shapes the way we think about politics.

    • "Cancel culture" can influence us to adjust our beliefs and language accordingly.

    • Cable news has led to an increase in conservative and liberal pundits who influence how people think about politics.

    • It's important to be wary of pundits, as they are primarily entertainers.

  • Civic and Religious Organizations

    • Ex: Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts, which teach patriotism and values.

    • Religious organizations: Churches, synagogues, and mosques vary in their political beliefs, but the political ideology is often joined to the organization's religious belief, which the congregation will be hearing about week after week.

    • During the COVID-19 pandemic, some evangelical Christian churches saw members leave when mask requirements were seen as overt liberal political socialization.

Globalization

  • Globalization - more global interconnectedness

  • Along with economic connections come political influences.

  • Immigration brings cultural ideas that can influence the political culture.

    • Example: Immigrants from Asian countries may have a stronger sense of community over the individual, which can affect a person's political socialization in America.

4.3 - Ideology Changes

Generational Effects

A person's voting behavior and political ideology are influenced by the generation into which they were born. Let's consider four major generations:

  • Silent Generation

  • Baby Boomers

  • Generation X

  • Millennials

Silent Generation

  • Tend to have a high value on religious belief and church attendance.

  • Adhered to a social order that attached rigid gender roles to men and women.

  • Generally conservative.

  • Opposed the cultural upheaval in the 1960s (counter-culture, women's rights, gay liberation).

  • Grew up during the Cold War and supported American intervention abroad to stop the spread of communism (e.g., Vietnam War).

  • Senior citizens vote in higher numbers than any other group.

Baby Boomers

  • The prosperity of the 1950s resulted in a large generation.

  • Learned to appreciate changes better than their parents.

  • Slightly more liberal than the Silent Generation, but still reliably voted conservative.

Generation X

  • The first generation to really use the internet.

  • Slightly more liberal than the Baby Boomer generation.

  • More ethnically diverse than previous generations.

Millennials

  • Even more liberal than previous generations.

  • More ethnically diverse

  • Lean into the liberal policies of the Democratic Party.

  • More likely to believe that racial discrimination plays a big role in society.

Generational Political Patterns

The older you are, the more likely you are conservative, and the younger you are, the more likely you are liberal. Each succeeding generation has become more liberal than their parents.

Life Cycle Effects

  • Whatever stage of life a person is in will contribute to their political beliefs and behavior.

  • Ex: An 18-year-old voting in the 2020 presidential primaries might have been attracted to Bernie Sanders' platform of free college tuition. Those in the Silent Generation might not care as much about this proposal.

  • After getting married and having kids, one might be less interested in free college tuition and more interested in pre-K legislation or lower taxes.

  • Political socialization happens as a result of generational membership and can change over time as you progress through different stages of life.

4.4 - Influence of Political Events on Ideology

Examples of Generational Political Event Impact

Political Events: Important Events that impact politics

The Silent Generation (Born ~1920-1945)

  • Key Experience: The Great Depression

  • Impact: Witnessed widespread job loss and poverty. Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal expanded the federal government to alleviate suffering by creating jobs and a social safety net (Social Security).

  • Political Outcome: This generation developed trust in government intervention for safety and well-being.

The Baby Boomers

  • Key Experience: The Vietnam War and Watergate Scandal

  • Impact: The release of the Pentagon Papers revealed government dishonesty about the Vietnam War. Richard Nixon's resignation further eroded trust.

  • Political Outcome: Many Boomers shifted from the Democratic to the Republican Party. Ronald Reagan's message that "government is not the solution to our problem; government is the problem" resonated with them.

Millennials

  • Key Experience: The September 11th Terrorist Attacks (9/11)

  • Impact: Initial unification was followed by a deeper analysis of American foreign policy. Millennials recognized the interconnectedness of the world and the role of American interventionism.

  • Political Outcome: This generation tends to favor candidates who champion cooperation and bridge-building in foreign policy, rather than aggressive interventionism.

Events Influence Voting Behavior

Major events can shape political beliefs and voting patterns. However, reactions are not uniform. For instance, some opposed the New Deal, and some became more devoted to aggressive foreign policy after 9/11. Major events will likely have a lasting effect on how people are politically socialized, regardless of how they end up voting.

4.5 - Measuring Public Opinion

Types of Polls

Sample: A small proportion of people surveyed meant to represent the whole population. Ideally at least 1,500

There are four main types of polls used to measure public opinion:

  • Opinion Poll:

    • Gauges public sentiment on specific topics, candidates, or policies.

    • Candidates use these polls to align their platforms with popular opinion.

  • Benchmark Poll:

    • Conducted at the beginning of a candidate's campaign.

    • Establishes a baseline to measure the campaign's progress by comparing it with future polls.

    • Aids in refining the candidate's messaging based on voter resonance.

  • Tracking Poll:

    • Repeatedly surveys the same group over time.

    • Monitors shifts in opinion on an issue.

    • Helps candidates tailor their campaign promises as the election nears.

  • Entrance and Exit Polls:

    • Conducted at voting sites.

    • Entrance polls are administered before voters cast their ballots.

    • Exit polls are administered after voters cast their ballots.

    • Considered highly valuable because they reflect the opinions of actual voters.

Ensuring Accuracy in Polls

  • Sampling Techniques:

    • Using a sample to measure public opinion instead of surveying the entire population.

    • Representative Sample: The sample's characteristics should mirror the larger population.

    • Random Sample: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

      • Random Digit Dialing - dialing random phone numbers to get a random sample.

  • Sampling Error: the chance a sample may not represent the general population

    • Polls can be manipulated and biased, based on the sample set, wording of the poll, etc.

  • Neutral Questions:

    • Questions should be clear, unbiased, and not leading.

    • The wording of questions significantly affects results.

Survey Methodology

Pollsters employ different survey methodologies to measure public opinion:

  • Mass Surveys

    • Uses a questionnaire distributed to a large number of people.

    • Primarily measures quantitative data.

  • Focus Groups

    • Involves a small group of people.

    • Collects qualitative data.

    • Allows for in-depth discussion and insights into opinions.

    • Results cannot be statistically generalized to the larger population.

4.6 - Measuring Public Opinion Data

Public opinion significantly influences elections and policy debates. Legislators use public opinion data to gauge support for legislation, and candidates use it to tailor their appeals.

Impact on Elections

Public opinion polls have tangible effects, such as determining candidate placement in debates.

  • Debate Stage Placement: Candidates are placed on stage according to their polling numbers. Higher polling numbers lead to center placement, drawing more attention and speaking time.

  • Bandwagon Effect: The bandwagon effect describes the phenomenon that people are more likely to support a candidate who is polling well because people want to back a winner.

  • Fundraising: Candidates with higher polling numbers find it easier to raise funds, as donors prefer to invest in likely winners.

Impact on Policy Debates

Public opinion strongly influences policy debates.

  • Politicians are more likely to support policies favored by a majority of Americans.

  • Voting against popular policies can have negative consequences for politicians.

Reliability of Opinion Polls

The reliability of public opinion polls affects their influence on elections and policy debates.

  • Scientific Polls: Properly conducted polls are the best tools for accurately measuring public opinion.

  • 2016 Election Polling Failure: The 2016 presidential election between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton was a notable polling failure. Polls predicted a Clinton victory, but Trump won.

Potential Explanations for Polling Failures

  • Social Desirability Bias - When people provide a socially acceptable answer on surveys, even if they don't act accordingly.

  • Non-Response Bias - Certain groups are more likely to respond to polls than others. For example, Trump supporters were less likely to respond to polls.

  • Partisan Polls: Polls funded by partisan groups or news outlets are not reliable due to their inherent bias. (who their audience is)

4.7 - Ideologies of Political Parties

Understanding Political Ideology

  • Political ideology - An individual set of believes about politics, public policy, and public purposes.

  • Ideologies generally fall along a spectrum from liberal (Democrat) to conservative (Republican)

Conservative Ideology

  • Emphasizes traditional social structures and existing structures of authority.

  • Favors limited government in public affairs.

  • Advocates for strong stances on crime and punishment.

  • Supports states' rights over federal power.

  • Seeks to maintain existing structures.

  • “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it”

Liberal Ideology

  • Emphasizes civil rights for marginalized groups.

  • Supports social justice movements to ensure equal civil liberties.

  • Favors government involvement in public affairs:

    • Care for the poor

    • Regulations on businesses

    • Intervention in the economy

  • Seeks to reform existing structures.

Major Political Parties in America

  • Political Party - a group of persons organized to acquire and exercise political power

    • Party in the electorate - voters

    • Party in the organization - people who run the party

    • Party in the government - elected office

    Parties are supposed to be the linkage institution between the people and the government

Republican Party (GOP) ❤

  • Also known as the Grand Old Party.

  • Closely aligns with conservative ideology.

  • This alignment is evident in their party platform

    • A set of policy goals the party would pursue if their candidate wins.

  • Examples from the Republican Platform

    • Economy: Limited government involvement

    • Family: Traditional marriage and family

    • Social Programs: Personal responsibility

    • Crime: Tough on crime.

Democratic Party 💙

  • Aligns with liberal ideology.

  • Liberal ideology is evident in their party platform.

  • Examples from the Democratic Platform:

    • Economic Equality: Leveling the economic playing field.

      • Ending poverty

      • Breaking up corporate concentrations

    • Healthcare: Universal affordable quality healthcare.

    • Social Justice: Fighting for rights.

      • Women

      • LGBTQ+

      • People with disabilities

      • Indigenous tribal nations

  • Belief in diversity and protest.

Important Considerations

  • Do not equate parties directly with ideologies.

  • Republicans may have liberal views on some issues, and Democrats may have conservative views on some issues.

  • Understand the general leaning of each party.

  • Parties are not perfect synonyms for ideologies.

4.8 - Ideologies & Policymaking

Policies reflect the beliefs of those who vote. If more liberals vote, more liberal policies are enacted. The same is true for conservatives.

Ongoing Ideological Debates

  • English as the Official Language

    • Conservatives advocate making English the official language of the U.S. They believe it would unite Americans and save federal/state money.

      • Hospitals must provide translators.

      • Schools hire bilingual teachers.

      • Some states print ballots in multiple languages.

    • Liberals reject the idea, viewing it as oppressive and potentially racist. They argue that requiring immigrants to abandon their native language equates to cultural erasure.

  • Multiculturalism vs. Assimilation

    • This debate concerns whether the U.S. should embrace multiculturalism or if there's a core set of American cultural values to which everyone should assimilate.

    • Multiculturalism: Values and upholds distinct cultures.

    • Assimilation: Adopting normative American cultural values.

    • Conservatives typically favor assimilation, while liberals champion multiculturalism.

Ideology Enacted: Laws and Policies

  • Conservative Policies

    • Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1998: addressed welfare policies, which provide government funds to the poor. Conservatives believed the welfare system trapped people in a cycle of poverty, disincentivizing work. The Act limited welfare payments to five years.

  • Liberal Policy: The DREAM Act & DACA

    • The DREAM Act aimed to create a pathway to citizenship for undocumented immigrants brought to the U.S. as minors. The bill failed to pass due to disagreements on immigration limits.

    • DREAM Act: Legislation that would provide a pathway to citizenship for young undocumented immigrants who were brought to the United States as children.

    • DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals): An executive order by President Obama that protected eligible immigrant youth who came to the U.S. as children from deportation.

4.9 - Ideologies and Economic Policy

This section will explore how different political ideologies view the role of government in regulating the marketplace. We'll cover liberal, conservative, and libertarian ideologies.

Economic Policy

Fiscal Policy: Decisions the government makes about government spending and taxation. This is controlled by Congress.

Monetary Policy: Decisions the government makes about how much money should be in the economy. This is controlled by the Federal Reserve (the Fed).

The Fed influences monetary policy by:

  • Buying and selling government bonds

  • Setting reserve requirements for banks (how much money they must keep on hand)

  • Setting interest rates

Ideological Approaches to Economic Policy

1) Liberal Ideology

Liberals generally favor the most government intervention in the economy. They believe that government spending and regulation of businesses are essential for a strong and secure economy.

  • Fiscal Policy: Liberals are big spenders, supported by Keynesian economics.

    • Keynesian Economics: This theory advocates for government intervention to address economic downturns. It gained prominence during the Great Depression.

      • The theory suggests the government should increase spending during economic downturns to stimulate demand and create jobs.

      • President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented Keynesian policies through federal work programs and social security.

  • Monetary Policy: Liberals believe that monetary policy is too slow to affect real change.

2) Conservative Ideology

Conservatives prefer less government intervention in the economy, believing that the free market is the best way to determine economic choices.

  • Fiscal Policy: Conservatives advocate for fewer government programs and lower taxes, supported by supply-side economics.

    • Supply-Side Economics: This theory focuses on supporting businesses to stimulate the economy.

      • The idea is that by injecting more goods into the economy, economic turmoil can be resolved.

      • Conservatives propose minimizing government regulations and lowering taxes to encourage business growth.

  • Monetary Policy: Conservatives favor using monetary policy to stabilize the economy.

3) Libertarian Ideology

Libertarians want the least amount of government intervention possible.

  • They believe the government's role in the economy should be limited to protecting personal property rights and ensuring voluntary trade.

  • They advocate for no regulation on businesses and minimal government programs.

4.10 - Ideologies and Social Policy

Libertarians

  • Libertarians want as little government involvement on dang near everything which includes social issues.

  • To a libertarian, the only thing the government is good for is protecting private property and upholding individual liberty.

  • Legalization of marijuana is a no-brainer.

  • Abortion? Get the government out of there.

  • Education? Libertarians don't see a need for government involvement.

Libertarians typically lean conservative on economic issues and more liberal on social issues, especially those concerning privacy.

Liberal Ideology 💙

Liberals tend to believe that personal privacy, which is to say areas of behavior that should be excluded from government involvement, is pretty broad.

  • Abortion: A private decision and should not be regulated by the government.

  • Marriage: The government needs to stay out of it.

  • Legalize marijuana: No problem, leave it to the individuals to decide.

While liberals often favor government involvement in areas like poverty, education, and business regulation, they generally prefer the government to stay out of many social issues.

Conservative Ideology ❤

Conservatives want less government involvement on some social issues but more in others.

  • Abortion: Not a private matter, should be regulated by the government.

  • Marriage: The government should mandate that marriage is an arrangement between one man and one woman. Against gay-marrriages

  • Gun Ownership: Conservatives want the government out of that decision.

  • Education: Conservatives want to make their own decisions about how and where to educate their children

  • Religious Beliefs: Conservatives want as little government intervention as possible

Liberals and conservatives favor government intervention in some social issues and reject it in others, and there isn't an easy way to categorize them neatly.