The Evolution of Power: From Divine Right to Constitutionalism
The Divine Right of Kings and the Theocratic State
The Foundation of Sovereignty: Historically, there was no separation between religion and politics; no wall or hedge existed to divide the two spheres. The governing principle was the Divine Right of Kings, a doctrine asserting that a monarch's authority comes directly from God.
Conceptual Logic: The Divine Right is based on a circular logic: If God did not want a specific individual to be king, he simply would not be king. This established a system where the king was God's representative on earth.
Political and Spiritual Implications: Rebellion against the king was not merely an act of treason (a political crime) but also a rebellion against God (a sin).
Stability of the System: This was an unforgeable and brilliant system for the ruling class. It ensured compliance because subjects feared not only physical execution by the state but also the loss of their eternal life in the hereafter.
Historical Peak: King Louis XIV is cited as the pinnacle of this established, hard and fast doctrine. While the concept was present from the beginning of the middle ages through the and , it reached its absolute extreme with Louis. Following his reign, the system began to disintegrate.
Theocracy Defined: Theocracy is a form of government characterized by "rule by religion," where the state government and religious institutions are inextricably linked.
Early Challenges and the Protestant Reformation
Early Cracks in the System: Before the formal Protestant Reformation, several philosophers began to challenge theocratic authority.
John Wycliffe: Wycliffe questioned the authority of the clergy. He was concerned that the Pope appointed individuals who were illiterate and lacked a stake in the nation. He argued that the educated "love people" (landowners, business owners, minor nobility) who were literate should be able to interpret the Bible themselves.
Jan Huss: Huss expanded on Wycliffe's ideas, advocating for the election of bishops. He believed the people with a stake in the government (not necessarily the peasant class) should elect religious leaders so those leaders would understand and shepherd their specific communities. His ideas were rejected by the establishment, and he was burned at the stake.
Erasmus: Erasmus introduced the radical idea of "Free Will." He argued that individuals have a choice and that nothing is entirely predetermined or inevitable.
The Printing Press: This technological advancement was the necessary precursor to the Reformation. Before the press, documents like the Bible were hand-copied by monks, and literacy was restricted to those with ties to the elite class. The printing press allowed for the mass distribution of ideas and the spread of literacy.
Martin Luther: Luther did not initially intend to tear the church apart; he wanted to reform it and cleanse it of corruption.
The 95 Theses: Luther identified specific areas where the church was wrong. Using the printing press, these ideas were distributed rapidly.
Criticism of the Pope: While Luther believed the Pope was appointed by God, he argued that power should be more evenly dispersed rather than concentrated in one figure.
Wealth and Poverty: Luther criticized the immense wealth of the church in the face of abject poverty, arguing that church resources should be used to alleviate suffering.
The Tithe: At this time, a tithe— of one's earnings given to the church—was not a voluntary donation but a legal requirement. Failure to pay could result in imprisonment and was framed as a risk to one's eternal soul.
Corruptions of Church Doctrine: Indulgences and Purgatory
Confession and Repentance: In traditional Catholic practice, a believer confesses sins to a priest and repents (feeling genuine regret). The priest then assigns a penance, such as praying the "Hail Mary" or "Our Father," to clean the soul and return it to good standing.
Indulgences: Local priests began charging money for the forgiveness of sins. For a set fee (e.g., ), a priest would claim to wipe a soul clean, ensuring entry into heaven.
Abuse by the Wealthy: This system favored the rich, who could even "pre-pay" for sins they intended to commit, such as adultery.
Purgatory and Debt: If a person died with sins on their record, they were believed to go to Purgatory—a waiting area before heaven. Living relatives were pressured to scrape together money to pay the church to release their loved ones from Purgatory. This created a perpetual cycle of debt for the poor.
The Break with Rome: Pope Leo demanded that Luther recant his criticisms. Luther refused, stating he could not lie against the truth. In , Luther was excommunicated (kicked out of the church and damned to hell). This led to the formation of the Protestant sect, including Lutherans and later Calvinists.
The English Reformation and King Henry VIII
The Tudor Line: The Tudors came to power following the War of the Roses, an English civil war. Henry VII sought to stabilize the nation by marrying his eldest son, Arthur, to the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon, daughter of the rulers of the most powerful country in the world at the time.
Henry VIII's Accession: After Arthur died, Henry VIII became king. He eventually married Catherine of Aragon after receiving a church dispensation (since she was his brother's widow).
The Need for an Heir: A queen's primary role was to provide "an heir and a spare" (two sons) to ensure stability. Catherine and Henry had only one surviving child, a daughter named Mary.
The Great Matter: After roughly years, Henry wanted a divorce to marry Anne Boleyn. The Pope refused, largely because the Vatican was being held hostage by Catherine's nephew.
The Church of England: In response, Henry broke from Rome and established the Church of England (Anglicanism). Unlike other Protestant movements, the Anglican church remained visually and ritualistically similar to Catholicism (candles, incense, stained glass), but the tithe money went to Henry instead of the Pope.
The Six Wives of Henry VIII:
Catherine of Aragon: Mother of Mary; divorced.
Anne Boleyn: Influenced by Calvinist ideas; mother of Elizabeth. She suffered miscarriages (possibly due to medical trauma during childbirth) and was eventually beheaded for treason and alleged witchcraft.
Jane Seymour: Provided the male heir, Edward, but died shortly after childbirth.
Anne of Cleves: Married based on a portrait (an early version of "match.com"); Henry found her unattractive and divorced her quickly.
Catherine Howard: Much younger than Henry; she had an affair and was beheaded with an English axe (a slow and painful execution).
Catherine Parr: Acted more as a nurse to the aging Henry; she survived him.
The Post-Henry Succession and Religious Volatility
Edward VI: Henry's young son ruled through his uncles (the Seymour brothers) who were Calvinists. Under his reign, the church became strictly Protestant: stained glass was removed, and hard, uncomfortable benches were installed to keep people awake during service.
Mary I ("Bloody Mary"): The oldest child and a staunch Catholic. She attempted to return England to Catholicism by force, burning Protestants at the stake. She believed that the pain of the fire would give heretics a "taste of hell" and prompt a last-minute conversion to save their souls. This was extremely unpopular.
Elizabeth I: She prioritized the functionality of the state over religious devotion. She stayed unmarried for years to retain her power, as marriage would have transferred that power to a husband.
The Elizabethan Compromise: She established a church that "looked" Catholic (incense, stained glass, soft seats) but "functioned" Protestant in theology.
The Stuarts and the Path to Constitutional Monarchy
James I: Elizabeth's closest heir, the King of Scotland. He was privately Catholic but functioned as the head of the Anglican church and is famous for the King James Bible.
Charles I and the Civil War: Charles I attempted to reassert the absolute authority of the monarchy (Divine Right). This led to the English Civil War, which ended with his execution.
The Commonwealth: A failed attempt at democracy/republicanism that led the English to eventually invite the monarchy back.
Charles II: Known as the "Merry Monarch," he was cooperative with Parliament because he had witnessed his father's execution.
James II: A Catholic who tried to return England to Catholicism and restore absolute monarchical power. The people initially tolerated him because his heirs (Mary and Anne) were Protestant. However, James II had a son with a new, young wife, sparking conspiracy theories that the baby was a "peasant boy" smuggled in to ensure a Catholic line.
The Glorious Revolution: This was a largely bloodless revolution in which James II fled to France. His daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, were invited to take the throne.
The English Bill of Rights and Political Philosophy
The English Bill of Rights (): To take the throne, William and Mary had to agree to terms that limited their power. This created a Constitutional Monarchy. Rights retained by the people (specifically the wealthy class) included:
Freedom of speech.
The right to petition the king (file grievances).
The right to bear arms for self-defense.
Protection against cruel and unusual punishment.
Taxation only with the consent of Parliament.
The prohibition of a standing army during peacetime (to prevent the king from using force against the citizenry).
Thomas Hobbes: Author of Leviathan and a proponent of absolute monarchy.
State of Nature: He argued that in a state of nature, life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
Human Nature: He believed humans are inherently bad, self-interested, and incapable of self-government.
The Need for Monarchy: He viewed the Glorious Revolution as illegitimate, arguing that people are "subjects," not "citizens," and need a strong monarch to provide law and order.
Metaphor: Without government (speed limits), people would drive and hit children; therefore, they must be controlled.
John Locke: Paid by William and Mary to justify the Glorious Revolution.
Natural Rights: He argued that all humans are born with rights to Life, Liberty, and Property. These are inherent from the first breath.
Tabula Rasa: The theory that humans are born as a "blank slate," and their environment and experiences determine who they become.
Social Contract: He believed representative government is best and that people are generally good and capable of doing the right thing. Government exists only to manage the "edges" of society.
Modern Application: The tension between Hobbesian (people are bad/need control) and Lockean (people are good/need rights) views remains the central sliding scale for modern government and lawmaking.
Questions & Discussion
Question: Is anyone here Catholic and willing to talk about it? What is confession?
Response: Confession is basically when you go to a priest from your local church and confess all your sins and everything that you've done, and you repent from it.
Question: What does repent mean?
Response: Repent means that you regret what you did. You feel bad. Afterward, they usually tell you how many Hail Marys or Our Fathers you have to pray to be renewed.
Question: In today's world, what is a tithe?
Response: It is a donation or a choice. (Note: At the time of the Reformation, it was a requirement under threat of jail or spiritual damnation).
Question: If we all went to lunch and had to agree on a restaurant, how long would it take?
Response: Forever. (Note: This illustrates Hobbes' point that having one person in charge—a monarch—is more efficient and less confusing).