Translating the Ancients & Making Sense of the World

Medieval Philosophy spans several centuries, variably according to different scholars from years as wide-ranging as 500 CE to 1500 CE. Philosophy written in this period includes works engaging in Greek, Latin, Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions. Significant scholarly activity was devoted to the translation of ancient philosophies, such as the works of Plato and Aristotle who remained widely read and influential, from Greek into Latin, as well as Hebrew and Arabic languages. Similarly, works were translated between Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin. The translations also sparked numerous commentaries as subsequent generations of philosophers engaged with earlier material.

Formal universities begin to develop across Europe in the late 11th century and by the 12th century Paris becomes a center for philosophical and theological activity, where the dominant approach to learning became known as Scholasticism. Scholasticism combined logic and metaphysics, ancient philosophy, and medieval theology; primarily an approach within Christian traditions, the approach had parallels within Jewish and Islamic thought. Scholasticism valued dialectical reasoning (involving making arguments and counterarguments) and so found resonance with the dialogues of ancient philosophers.

Thomas Aquinas, born in Italy around 1225, spent several years studying in Paris after becoming a Dominican friar. A prolific writer, Aquinas wrote biblical commentaries as well as commentaries on Aristotle and other works of classical philosophy. He also drafted original philosophy and was regarded in his own time and after as a person of great intellectual achievement appreciated for his ability to bridge ancient and medieval traditions.

As influential as St. Thomas Aquinas was on Christian thought, Avicenna, or Ibn Sina, is regarded as the preeminent philosopher of the Islamic world whose writings likewise informed Jewish and Christian thinkers. As well-versed in medicine and science as ancient philosophy, Avicenna made key translations and compiled numerous encyclopedias of various disciplines, an important and impactful contribution in an era before modern printing presses, as well as wrote works of original philosophy.

Sometimes referred to as "The First Teacher," Avicenna's writing influenced generations of Middle Eastern and Far Eastern intellectuals and his writings were taught as often as Aristotle's. Later his works were translated into Latin where his legacy continued to impact Renaissance thinkers. Avicenna wrote several influential medical texts, including The Book of Healing, which can be described as a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, which was a medical encyclopedia. He also wrote philosophy focused on logic, empiricism, and metaphysics.

As philosophers worked to bridge and translate ancient philosophy with medieval thought, writers also experimented with form and style, including weaving significant philosophical ideas and concepts within other literary traditions.

An excellent example of how literature and philosophy intermingled during this period can be found in the work of Christine de Pisan, who lived near the end of the medieval period, born in Venice, Italy in 1364 and died in France in 1431 where she lived most of her life. Generally regarded as the first woman author to write professionally in the Middle Ages, de Pisan moved to France at a young age. Her father served as the royal astronomer to the French king, Charles V and her aristocratic upbringing granted her access to learning as well as time for literary and intellectual pursuits. She began by writing poetry and then developed longer works with moral and educational content that dialogued with religious and philosophical ideas of her time.