Translation Studies - Comprehensive Notes
Types of Translation (Newmark, 1988)
Newmark's classification includes semantic, communicative translation, and adaptation.
Semantic Translation
Focuses on the source language (SL) text.
Semantically and syntactically oriented.
Literal and faithful to the SL text.
Complex, detailed, and potentially awkward.
Communicative Translation
Focuses on the target language (TL) text to aid reader comprehension.
Used for pragmatic texts, emphasizing contextual meaning.
Concentrates on the effectiveness of the message on the reader.
Freer, smoother, simpler, and more direct than semantic translation.
Adaptation
Considered a free form of translation.
Requires the translator to go beyond literal word meanings.
Meaning extracted according to context.
Linked to culture; translator changes SL expressions if they don't exist in the TL.
Difficulties of Literary Translation
Literary translation requires more than accuracy; it demands preserving the author's original tones and writing style.
Maintaining Author's Tone
Translators must ensure the literary translation process doesn't affect the author's expression and unique writing style.
Word choices should evoke the same understanding and feelings as the original.
Culturally Specific Expressions
Challenge of translating names or characters used as personality adjectives (e.g., Don Juan).
Decisions on whether to keep the original name with a footnote or find an equivalent in the target culture.
Play-on-words and Tongue Twisters
Wordplay and tongue twisters pose a significant challenge.
Translators must find equivalent expressions that carry the same pronunciation challenges.
Example: "She sells seashells by the seashore."
Dialects and Slang
Translating dialects and slang while retaining characters' unique talking styles is difficult.
Example from Gone with the Wind:
Original: “Is de gempmum gone? Huccome you din’ ast dem ter stay fer supper, Miss Scarlett? Ah done tole Poke ter lay two extry plates fer dem. Whar’s yo’ manners?”
Vietnamese translation: “Mấy cậu về ‘ồi sao? Sao không mời người ta ở lại dùng bữa? Tôi đã bảo Pok’ dọn thêm hai bộ dĩa cho họ. Đó là lối xã giao nào vậy?”
The translator illustrates the dialect in Vietnamese by cutting out some syllabus like ‘ồi instead of rồi, or Pok’ instead of Poke.
The Literary Translation Process
Requires experienced linguists and a structured working process.
Steps:
Read the Original Book
Translators must understand the book inside and out.
Includes understanding the author's literary style, researching relevant topics, and discussing unclear points.
Translate and Self-Review
One translator should translate to avoid conflicts in literary styles.
The translator self-reviews the translation multiple times.
Edit the Translated Version
A second native linguist reviews the translation to correct mistakes.
Editors make changes in wording, language use, sentence structures, inconsistencies, and misued terminology
Proofread
A third linguist reads the final translated version for smoothness and visuals.
Focuses on spelling, punctuation, grammar, typing errors, consistent language, and the overall format.
Desktop Publishing (DTP)
The book is laid out and indexed in a proper template.
Reviewed again (in-context review) before printing and publishing.
Problems of Translating Idioms
Idioms are groups of words with fixed meanings that differ from their literal interpretations.
Using idiomatic expressions is one of the ways that can be used to convey the intended meaning indirectly.
Idioms should not be broken up into their elements because they are sometimes referred to as a fixed expression, Cowie & Mackin (1975).
Idioms are associated with historical, geographical, and cultural factors.
Cultural aspects include religious beliefs, culture-specific items, superstitions, and ideologies.
People from different cultures may not understand idiomatic expressions, causing translation problems.
Idioms and Translation
Intercultural translation of idioms is challenging due to the gap between languages and cultures.
Translators need a good knowledge of both languages and cultures (bilingual and bicultural).
Expressions vary across languages, with some being opaque or nonsensical to speakers of another language.
Language and culture are closely interrelated.
Arabic and English belong to different language families and are culturally unrelated.
Non-linguistic factors (religion, geography, ideologies) complicate idiomatic translation between English and Arabic.
Newmark (1988) considers idioms as “extended” metaphors with pragmatic and referential functions (p. 104).
Pragmatic function: appeals to the senses, interests, surprises, delights.
Referential function: describes mental processes, concepts, people, objects, qualities, or actions comprehensively and concisely.
Idioms should not be translated literally; find a rendering that conveys the same meaning and effect.
Ghazala's Classification (2007: 128-130)
Direct Idioms: Equivalents can be found in the target language.
Example: "A true friend does not stab in the back." translates to الصديق الحقيقي ال يطعن في ال هت.
Indirect Idioms: No direct equivalent exists in the target language.
Example: "He can walk on water." translates to المعجزات صنع يستطيع.
Examples of Translated Idioms
To take the rough and the smooth: أتي علي ارخيت واليابس .
To keep a tight rein on someone: علي الينات يييق.
Through thin and thick: في الستا و اليتا.
To move earth and heaven: يقي الدنيا ويقعدها.
To add insult to injury: يزيد الطين بلة.
To walk on air: يرعت بسعا ة اامتة.
To live from hand to mouth: يحيا حياة الكوا هعيا اترا ة والريصية.
To Have no backbone: الب.
To let the cat out of the bag: يوري الست.
To think on one’s feet: ستيع البديهة.
Makkai's Types of Meaning (1972)
Idioms of Encoding: Transparent meanings easily understood by non-native speakers.
Example: "kill two birds with one stone" translates directly to "هتب عصوورين بحجت واحد" in Arabic.
Idioms of Decoding: Non-identifiable and opaque lexical expressions.
Lexemic idioms: phrasal verbs (to come up with), phrasal compounds (black ice), incorporating verbs (man-handle), pseudo-idioms (spick and span).
Semantic idioms: convey pragmatic meanings related to culture, including proverbs (A bird in hand is worth two in the bush) and familiar quotations (not a mouse stirring).
Difficulties in Translating Idioms (Culture)
Culture is crucial for idiom interpretation.
Translators need a solid foundation of the target language's culture and cross-cultural awareness.
Words may have different connotations in different languages due to cultural roots.
Differences between SL and TL cultures make translation challenging.
Social factors influence the perception of social experiences.
Arabic vs. English Idioms
Arabic idioms: مسنو قهت "He is backed up" and شجتة من مقطوع "He has no relatives."
Literal translations may not make sense to English speakers.
The first idiom reflects the Arab preference for large families for social support while the second idiom means all family members are dead and they need help and sympathy from others around him
Idioms are usually impossible to translate literally.
Culture encompasses attitudes, assumptions, beliefs, and values.
Cultures provide different answers to universal problems.
Main problems in idiomatic translation: recognizing and interpreting idioms correctly, and rendering their meaning into the target language.
Translation involves more than replacing lexical and grammatical items; it may require discarding basic linguistic elements to achieve expressive identity.
Appendices: Important Structural and Grammar Rules for Better Translation
Common Grammatical Mistakes
Dangling Modifier: A modifying word or phrase not properly matched with the word it modifies.
Incorrect: Traveling north, the trees get smaller.
Correct: Traveling north, I notice that the trees get smaller.
Squinting Modifier: A modifier placed ambiguously.
Example: People who travel in Europe often prefer to stay in affordable hotels.
Clarification needed: "People who travel often in Europe prefer to stay in affordable hotels” or “Often, people who travel in Europe prefer to stay in affordable hotels."
Pronoun Confusion: Pronouns without clear antecedents.
Incorrect: Jacob called a neighbor to ask about his car.
Correct: Jacob called a neighbor to ask about the neighbor’s car.
Split Infinitives: Words between "to" and the verb in an infinitive.
Incorrect: He decided to boldly go where no man had gone before.
Correct: He decided to go boldly where no man had gone before.
Comma Splicing: Joining two independent clauses with a comma.
Incorrect: Many people think I’m tall, they don’t realize I wear platform shoes.
Correct: Many people think I’m tall; they don’t realize I wear platform shoes.
Double Negatives: Two negative modifiers confusing the sentence's meaning.
Incorrect: I haven’t hardly begun to think of my plans for next year.
Correct: I have hardly begun to think of my plans for next year.
Definite and Indefinite Articles
Articles modify nouns.
The is the definite article (specific nouns), and a/an is the indefinite article (non-specific nouns).
Indefinite Articles "A" and "An"
Signal that the noun modified is indefinite (any member of a group).
Example: "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas."
"A" + consonant sound: a boy, a car, a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer')
"An" + vowel sound: an elephant, an hour (silent "h")
Indicate membership in a group: I am a teacher.
Definite Article "The"
Used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular.
Example: The dog that bit me ran away."
Used when the noun it refers to is unique.
Example: The Earth goes round the Sun.
Geographical Use of "The"
Do not use "the" before:
Names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia
Exception: the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States
Names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
Names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
Names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie
Exception: Great Lakes
Names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji
Exception: the Andes, the Rockies
Names of continents: Asia, Europe
Names of islands: Easter Island, Maui, Key West
Exception: the Aleutians, the Hebrides
Do use "the" before:
Names of rivers, oceans, and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
Points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
Geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
Deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula
Omission of Articles (Zero Article/No Article)
Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian
Exception: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality."
Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science
Zero articles with commodities
Wine is one of the main exports of this part of the country
Do you take sugar in your tea?
The price of oil is expected to fall again soon.
DO vs. MAKE
DO
Used for work, jobs, or tasks (no physical object produced).
Example: Have you done your homework?
Activities in general without being specific.
Example: I've got things to do!
Replace a verb when the meaning is clear.
Example: Do I need to do my hair? (do = brush or comb)
Do: Work, Jobs and Tasks: Do the housework, the homework, a good task, Non-Specific Activities: Do something, nothing, anything, everything, Replace Verb when Obvious: Do your hair, the dishes, the exam, the laundry
MAKE
Producing, constructing, creating, or building something new.
Example: His wedding ring is made of gold.
Producing an action or reaction.
Example: Onions make your eyes water.
Plans and decisions
Example: He has made arrangements to finish work early.
Speaking and certain sounds
Example: She made a nice comment about my dress.
Food, drink and meals.
Example: I made a cake for her birthday.
Material /Origin: Made of gold, in China, by me, from grapes, Produce a Reaction Make your eyes water, you sleepy, you happy, you smile
Plans and Decisions: Make arrangement, a choice, a decision, a plan,Speaking and Sounds Make a noise, a comment, a speech, a suggestion
Food, Drink and Meals: Make a cake, breakfast, dinner, a cup of coffee
Short list for common words used with "Do" and "Make"
Do: a job, work, damage, harm, a quiz, homework, studies, sport, hobby, vest, good, better, wrong, exercise, project, a report, research, washing, shopping, favor, heart transplant, drugs, post graduates, ironing
Make: a decision, a suggestion, a speech, phone call, parts for, the bed, mistake, no effort, make use of, make sure, an offer, dinner, money, fun of, a discovery, promise, prediction, friends, time.