UPSC Prelims Compass 2025: History and Culture - Comprehensive Notes
Ancient History of India
Harappan Civilisation
Archaeologists discovered a human skeleton at Padta Bet (Gujarat), near Juna Khatiya's mass burial site, indicating a 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement.
In 2018, a mass burial site with 500 graves was found near Khatiya village in Kutch.
Rakhigarhi Findings
NCERT revisions include DNA analysis findings from Rakhigarhi, Haryana.
Ancient DNA suggests Harappan genetic roots trace back to 10,000 BCE.
South Asian populations predominantly descend from Harappans.
Indian genetic history shows unbroken continuity for 5,000 years.
Rakhigarhi is one of the five largest Harappan townships in Hisar, Haryana, and the largest site in area.
Excavated by Amarendra Nath (ASI), revealing early, mature, and late phases of Indus Valley Civilisation. Features mudbrick and burnt-brick houses with drainage.
Ceramic industry included red ware like dish-on-stand, vases, jars, bowls, beakers, perforated jars, goblets, and ‘handis’.
Necropolis contained extended burials and a double burial (male and female).
Animal sacrificial pits with mud bricks and fire altars indicate Harappan ritual systems.
A cylindrical seal features 5 Harappan characters and an alligator symbol.
A jewellery-making unit was also discovered.
Harappan Civilisation to be Called ‘Sindhu-Sarasvati’
NCERT committee suggests alternative names ('Sindhu-Sarasvati' or 'Indus-Sarasvati') based on archaeological research.
New textbooks extensively reference the Sarasvati river, crucial to the 'Indus-Sarasvati' Civilization.
The Sarasvati basin included major sites like Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala.
The Sarasvati, now Ghaggar (India) and Hakra (Pakistan), is depicted as seasonal.
Decline factors include climate change, reduced rainfall, and Sarasvati river drying.
Old textbooks mentioned various theories without linking them conclusively to the collapse of all cities, instead suggesting a loss of control by rulers.
Harappan Civilization phases:
Early Harappan Phase: 3200-2600 BCE
Mature Harappan Phase: 2600-1900 BCE
Late Harappan Phase: 1900-1700 BCE
Early phase involved farmers migrating between highlands and lowlands.
Earliest Indus script specimens date to the third millennium BCE.
Villagers cultivated peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton; domesticated water buffalo.
Geographical Setting of the Harappan Civilization
Geographic extent:
North: Mandu in Jammu
South: Daimabad in Maharashtra
West: Sutkagendor in Balochistan, Pakistan
East: Alamgirpur in Western Uttar Pradesh
Covered regions: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh; sites in Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
Mehrgarh (Pakistan) indicates early cotton cultivation.
Important Sites of the Civilization
Harappa
Location: Ravi River, Punjab, Pakistan.
Findings: Cemetery-37, sandstone statues of human anatomy, granaries (two rows of six), workmen quarters, red sandstone male torso.
Mohenjo-Daro
Location: Indus River, Sindh, Pakistan.
Findings: Great Bath, Assembly Hall, Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva) seal, woven cotton fragments.
Chanhudaro
Location: Indus River, Sindh, Pakistan.
Findings: No citadel, bronze bullock cart figurines and ekkas, kink well.
Lothal
Location: Bhogva River, Gulf of Cambay, Gujarat, India.
Findings: Citadel and lower town, dockyard, rice cultivation evidence.
Kalibangan
Location: Ghaggar River, Rajasthan, India.
Findings: Ploughed field evidence, wooden furrow, seven fire-altars, camel bones, circular and rectangular graves.
Dholavira
Location: Luni River, Kachchh district, Gujarat, India.
Findings: Unique water management system, Harappan inscription, stadium evidence.
Surkotada
Location: Between Sabarmati and Bhogavo rivers, Gujarat, India.
Findings: Horse evidence, oval grave, pit burial practices.
Banawali
Location: Saraswati River, Haryana.
Findings: Pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures, high-quality barley remains.
Mystery of Indus Valley Script
Tamil Nadu CM announced $$1 million prize for deciphering the Indus Valley script.
In 1924, Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of Bronze Age Harappan Civilization (c. 3300-1300 BCE) in the Indus Valley.
IVC flourished in north-western South Asia, present-day Pakistan and northwest India.
Key archaeological sites included Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi.
Indus Valley Script
Largely undeciphered, comparisons with Mesopotamian and Egyptian scripts were attempted.
It is an indigenous product of the Indus region with no links to Western Asia.
Key Features
Short inscriptions (average of 5 characters), the longest has just 26.
Nearly 4000 Harappan writing specimens on stone seals and objects.
Unlike Egyptians/Mesopotamians, Harappans did not write long inscriptions; most inscriptions were recorded on seals.
Seals marked and identified private property.
Boustrophedon script (right to left, then left to right).
Not alphabetical but pictographic with 250-400 pictographs; each letter stood for a sound, idea, or object.
First Evidence of Rock Art in Mangaluru City
Evidence found near Boloor Panne Koteda Babbu Swamy shrine, Mangaluru, Karnataka.
Pair of human footprints on a natural stone boulder, possibly from the first or second century A.D.
Rock Art Tradition in India
Paintings and engravings on natural surfaces (caves, shelters, boulders).
It's a global phenomenon.
Chronology traced from Upper Palaeolithic to Historic times.
Rock art with Brahmi, Kharosthi, Shankha, and Nagari scripts is grouped as Historic period rock art.
Sites reported from sandstone or sedimentary rock landscapes.
Searching for Indraprastha
Under Ministry of Tourism’s ‘Adopt a Heritage scheme’, the Dalmia Group’s Sabhyata Foundation adopted Purana Qila for maintenance and tourism promotion at the fort, also known as Indraprastha from the Mahabharata
Purana Qila built by Mughal Emperor Humayun.
ASI is set to begin seventh round of excavations to find links to Indraprastha and the Mahabharata.
Findings in 2014
1954: Archaeologist B B Lal first dug up the site.
2014: Grey pottery rolled up inside soft white cotton cloth was found.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery suggests ancient city Indraprastha links.
PGW characteristics:
Fine, smooth, grey pottery produced by firing techniques.
Geometric patterns in black or deep chocolate brown.
Shapes include open-mouthed bowls and dishes.
Dated between approximately 1100 BCE and 500/400 BCE.
Matches some Mahabharata composition estimates.
Excavated from Mahabharata-related sites (Hastinapur, Tilpat, Kurukshetra).
B B Lal established PGW association with Mahabharata period.
Purana Qila excavation proves continuous habitation in Delhi from 1200 BCE till today.
Other archaeologists suggest PGW occurrence doesn't necessarily mean Mahabharata connection.
Historian Upinder Singh suggests PGW presence means sites were inhabited from about 1000 BCE onwards with similar material culture.
About Indraprastha
Mentioned in ancient Indian literature as a city of the Kuru Kingdom.
Mauryan period: Known as Indapatta in Buddhist Pali literature.
Modern historians cite its location in the region of present-day New Delhi, particularly the Old Fort (Purana Qila).
About Kuru Kingdom
Appeared in the Middle Vedic period (1200 BCE), encompassing parts of modern-day Haryana, Delhi, and some parts of western Uttar Pradesh.
Declined in importance during the late Vedic period (900-500 BCE).
Corresponds with the archaeological Painted Grey Ware culture.
From Tribal to Territorial States in the Later Vedic Period (900–600 BCE)
Social and political structure evolved from tribal polity to territorial state.
Janas began settling; loyalty shifted from tribe (jana) to territory (janapada).
'Janapada' means 'the place where the tribe sets its foot upon.'
Janapadas competed, expanded, and evolved into mahajanapadas.
About Adopt a Heritage Scheme (Apni Dharohar, Apni Pehchaan)
Ministry of Tourism initiative with Ministry of Culture and ASI.
Launched in 2017 on World Tourism Day (September 27th).
Invites entities to develop selected monuments and tourist sites.
Objective is providing and maintaining basic amenities.
Selection is based on tourist footfall and visibility.
Adopt a Heritage 2.0, launched by ASI, gave more freedom to companies to develop tourism infrastructure or provide amenities.
Permissible activities are stated as per the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act.
Nalanda University
PM inaugurated the new campus of Nalanda University in Bihar near ancient ruins in Rajgir.
About 17 countries besides India signed agreements for the university.
About Nalanda Mahavihara
5th-12th Century AD university in ancient and medieval Magadha, considered one of the greatest learning centers in ancient India.
UNESCO declared ruins a World Cultural Heritage Site in 2016.
Details found in writings of Chinese traveller Huang Tsang: 10,000 monks and 2000 teachers at that time.
Established during the Gupta Empire (3rd–6th century CE), supported by Indian and Javanese patrons.
Numismatic evidence suggests Kumaragupta I was the founder patron.
Successors (Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, Vajra) expanded institution.
Also patronized by King Harshavardhana (7th century CE) and the Pala rulers (8th-12th century CE).
After the fall of Palas, monks of Nalanda were patronised by the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya.
Curriculum and Associated Scholars
Skillful blend of secular and religious knowledge, the theoretical and the practical.
Included Buddhist philosophies (Mahayana, Madhyamaka, Yogachara, Sarvastivada, Hinayana, Samkhya).
Other subjects: Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, logic, mathematics, astronomy, arts, medicine, metal casting technique.
Renowned library was a key source for Sanskrit texts transmitted to East Asia by pilgrims such as Huang Tsang.
Texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Examples: Works of Dharmakirti, Boddhisattvacharyavatara of Shantideva, Mahavairokana Tantra.
Took international students from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet and other parts of Asia.
Brought Buddhism to the world.
Famed for learned professors (Upajjhaya): Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, Asanga.
Decline of Mahavihara
Destroyed three times by:
Huns under Mihirakula.
Goudas (7th century).
Turkish leader Bakhtiyar Khilji (1193).
Destructive reasons for downfall:
Loss of Royal Patronage: Steady decline in royal patronage affecting finances.
Competition from Emerging Centres: Vikramashila, Somapura and Jaggadala.
Plundered Manuscripts: Plundered by invaders and other religious sects.
Religious Conflicts: Advent of Hinduism caused religious conflicts with Buddhism.
Political Instability: Instability in the Magadh region.
Erosion of Trade Routes: Recurring invasions.
Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves
President Droupadi Murmu visited Udayagiri caves, Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
About Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
Situated on adjacent hills, mentioned as Kumari Parvata in Hathigumpha inscription.
Finely carved caves built during the 1st century BCE (Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves).
Most were carved as residential blocks for Jain ascetics during King Kharavela's reign.
Kharavela: Monarch of Kalinga (present-day Odisha) during the second or first century BCE.
Kalinga was invaded by Ashoka in 262-261 BCE.
Its regained independence from the Maurya Empire after Ashoka's death.
Rock cutting continued till the Somavamsis of tenth-eleventh century A.D.
Most caves consist of a row of cells opening into courtyard; doorways have pilasters with animal figures and arches.
Udayagiri has 18 caves, Khandagiri has 15.
Caves called lena or leṇa in inscriptions.
Ranigumpha in Udayagiri is a double storeyed monastery.
Other important caves: Hathi Gumpha, Ananta Gumpha, Ganesha Gumpha, Jaya Vijaya Gumpha, Mancapuri Gumpha.
Listed as one of the Adarsh Smarak Monuments by ASI with additional visitor facilities.
Some Important Caves at Udayagiri
Rani Gumpha ‘Cave of the Queen’
Largest and most popular cave, double storeyed.
Upper portion has relief images depicting the victory march of a king.
Many cells have carved Dwara Pala images.
Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha
Double storeyed, depicts Kalinga Jina worshipped by male and female figures.
Kalinga Jina taken from Kalinga by Mahapadmananda and restored by Kharavela.
Three inscriptions: Kharavela's chief queen and Kudepasiri (Kharavela's successor)
Ganesha Gumpha
Named for the carved figure of Ganesha on the back of its right cell, carved later.
Carved figures of Dwara Palas at the entrances.
Hathigumpha
Large natural cave with Kharavela's Brahmi script inscription, main source of information about him.
Known for exquisite elephant carvings.
Mudras in Buddhism
‘Abhaya Mudra’ invoked by Leader of Opposition; gesture with raised open palm conveying reassurance.
Common in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism.
Introduction
Evolved from Siddhartha's enlightenment, Buddha gave his first sermon to his five companions at Deer Park in Sarnath, Varanasi. This became known as Dharma-chakra-pravartana (Turning the wheel of Law).
Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (Malla Mahajanapada) in Uttar Pradesh in 483 BC.
Mudras in Buddhism
Hand and arm gestures made during ritual practice or depicted in images.
They are associated with visual depictions of the Buddha, signifying subtle manifestations of realization.
Earliest depictions date to around the turn of the first millennium.
Started in Gandhara art (northwestern edge of Indian subcontinent), drawing on Hellenistic (Greek) influences, and later in the art of the Gupta period.
Earliest depictions included four mudras: Abhaya mudra, Bhumisparsha mudra, Dharmachakra mudra, Dhyana mudra.
With the evolution of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, hundreds of mudras entered Buddhist iconography.
About Abhaya Mudra
The palm of the right-hand faces outward at shoulder height, fingers point up, and index, second, or third finger touches the thumb.
Associated with the Buddha immediately after enlightenment, portraying security, serenity, and compassion.
Illustrates Buddha’s ability to grant fearlessness, seen as a ‘gesture of protection’ or ‘gesture of granting refuge’.
Other Mudras in Buddhism
Dharmachakra Mudra
Gesture of 'Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma', describing Buddha's first sermon in Sarnath after enlightenment.
Both hands are held against the chest, the left-facing inward, covering the right facing outward.
Dhyan Mudra
Also known as Samadhi or Yoga mudra.
Two hands are placed on the lap, the right hand rests on the left hand with stretched fingers.
Bhumisparsha Mudra
Gesture of ‘touching the Earth’, representing the moment of the Buddha's awakening.
The right hand rests above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.
Varada Mudra
Represents offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion, and sincerity.
The palm of the right hand faces forward with fingers extended, and the left-hand palm is placed near omphalos with extended fingers.
Karana Mudra
Signifies warding off evil, performed by raising the index and the little finger and folding the other fingers.
Expels demons and removes obstacles.
Vajra Mudra
Denotes the fiery thunderbolt, symbolizing the five elements of nature.
The right fist encloses the erect forefinger of the left hand with the tip of the right forefinger touching the tip of the left forefinger.
Vitarka Mudra
Signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the Buddha.
Joins the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight.
The Great Stupa of Sanchi
In December 2022, the Humboldt Forum Museum in Berlin unveiled a replica of Sanchi's East Gate, highlighting cultural dialogue between India and Germany.
Stupa
A commemorative monument containing sacred relics of the Buddha or other venerable saints.
The archetypal stupa is a hemispherical structure, whose origins can be traced to pre-Buddhist burial mounds found in India. The Great Stupa of Sanchi exemplifies this form.
Sanchi Stupa
Location: Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh.
Discovered by British officer Henry Taylor in 1818.
Surveyed and excavated by Alexander Cunningham (ASI founder) in 1851.
Restoration overseen by ASI Director-General John Marshall during the 1910s, with support from Bhopal's begums.
The most recent construction dates to the twelfth century CE.
Believed to have been built over the Buddha’s relics.
Development supported by patronage from Vidisha’s mercantile community.
Designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1989.
Featured on the reverse side of the ₹200 Indian currency note.
Commissioned By Emperor Ashoka
Originally commissioned by Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
Originally a brick dome over the Buddha's relics.
Crowned with a Chatra, symbolizing high rank.
Ashoka’s wife Devi, from Vidisha, oversaw construction.
Expansions
1st century BCE: significant enhancements
Four carved Toranas (ornamental gateways) and a balustrade (railing) were added.
Transitioned from Mauryan origins to ornate phase.
Shungas and Satavahanas rulers expanded and embellished the stupa.
Shunga period: Enlarged with stone slabs, nearly twice original diameter.
Dome flattened near top, crowned with three superimposed parasols in a square railing, symbolizing the Dharma.
High circular drum supporting the dome was built for circumambulation (Pradakshinapath) with a double staircase and stone balustrade.
Railings surrounding Stupa 1 composed of plain stone slabs with dedicatory inscriptions, mimic a wooden prototype, featuring short donor inscriptions in Brahmi script.
Satavahana Contributions
Satavahanas conquered eastern Malwa and controlled Sanchi site.
Satavahanas constructed ornate gateways around stupas, introduced decorated gateways in the 1st century BCE.
The Siri-Satakani inscription commemorates the donation of one of the top lintels of the Southern Gateway by artisans of King Satakarni II.
Gateways of Great Stupa
Renowned for carved ornamental gateways or toranas.
Constructed in the first century BCE during the Satavahana dynasty.
Four toranas oriented to the cardinal directions:
Southern gateway: emphasizes Ashoka's role in spreading Buddhism
Northern gateway: best preserved, clear artistic style
Eastern gateway: represents the seven Manushi Buddhas
Western gateway: Completion of the four gateways
Buddhist Excavations in Ratnagiri
ASI made significant discoveries during excavations at historic Ratnagiri Buddhist site, Jajpur district, Odisha.
Major Highlights
Ongoing excavations uncovered Buddhist artefacts such as:
Buddhist monastery complex. (8th CE)
Hundreds of votive stupas.
Colossal Buddha head and sculptural fragments of Buddhist deities, a massive palm.
Inscribed stones, pottery, beads, stone pillars.
Ancient brick wall.
Monolithic elephant.
Findings enhance Ratnagiri's 1,200-year legacy of Buddhist heritage.
Significance:
Site experts believe Ratnagiri rivalled Nalanda as a centre of Buddhist learning.
Excavations will enhance understanding of Buddhism's evolution in Odisha and its connections with Southeast Asia.
Ratnagiri Buddhist Site
Ratnagiri (hill of jewels) is the site of a ruined mahavihara (once the major Buddhist monastery) in Odisha.
Location:
On a hill between Brahmani and Birupa rivers in Jajpur district.
Close to other Buddhist sites like Lalitagiri (oldest Buddhist monastery in Odisha).
Part of Odisha's Diamond Triangle with Udaygiri and Lalitgiri.
Developed under the patronage of Bhauma kara dynasty (8th-11th centuries CE).
Buddhist monuments constructed from the 5th century CE onwards, peak between about 7th-10th CE.
Began to decline in 13th century CE due to invasions by Muslim rulers, activity persisted until 16th century CE.
Key fact: Buddha sculptures discovered in Ratnagiri feature intricate hairstyles, not found elsewhere in India.
Odisha & Buddhism
Tapassu and Bhallika, first disciples of Lord Buddha, originated from Utkala (ancient name of Odisha).
Mauryan Emperor Ashoka invaded Kalinga in 261 BC, later embraced Buddhism.
Kalinga played a great role in popularising Buddhism in Southeast Asia due to trade links.
Pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, silk, camphor, gold, and jewellery were popular items of trade between Kalinga and SE Asia.Odisha holds Baliyatra (‘voyage to Bali’) - a festival commemorating maritime and cultural links between Kalinga, Bali, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka.
Hiuen Tsang visited Odisha (638-639 AD) and might have visited Ratnagiri.
Buddhism flourished under the Bhaumakara dynasty (8th-10th CE).
Medieval History of India
Guru Ravidas
Magh Purnima marks Sant Guru Ravidas Jayanti (February 24).
Prime Minister unveiled Sant Guru Ravidas statute in Varanasi to commemorate 647th birth anniversary.
About Guru Ravidas
Born: 1377 CE in Govardhanpur near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
Revered as a guru in Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
Early Life:
Parents: Mata Kalsi and Santokh Das, leatherworkers from the untouchable caste.
At age 12, married Lona Devi, and they had a son named Vijay Dass.
Ravidas focused on spiritual pursuits along the banks of Ganga.
Traveled on pilgrimages to Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the Himalayas.
Became a disciple of bhakti saint-poet Ramananda.
Contributions to Bhakti Movement:
Adhered to the Nirguna sampradaya - rejects the Saguna form of Bhakti.
Saguna: Worship of specific deities (Shiva, Vishnu).
Nirguna: Worship of an abstract form of God.
Teachings symbolized resistance against untouchability, confronting discrimination.
Egalitarian teachings influenced social-reform movements in 20th century.
Engaged with Sufi saints, sadhus, and ascetics, fostering spiritual understanding.
Literary Works/Traditions:
His devotional verses found in Sikh scriptures:
Interactions with Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism.
41 of his poems included in the Adi Granth.
Premambodha portrays him as one of the seventeen saints.
Dadu Panthi tradition includes poems attributed to Ravidas in the Panch Vani text.
Anantadas Parcai, one of the earliest surviving biographies of Bhakti movement poets, narrates the birth of Ravidas.
Bhaktamal: He was a disciple of Ramananda (1400-1480 A.D); believed to be contemporary of Sant Kabir.
Hagiographies (long after his demise) shed light on social dynamics:
Illustrates clash between heterodox communities and Brahmanical traditions.
Presents legends, including interactions with Delhi Sultanate ruler Sikander Lodi (1458-1517).
Guru Ravidas and Meera Bai
In Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, adjacent to Mirabai’s temple, a chhatri has engraved footprints of Ravidas.
Symbolizes spiritual and poetic connection.
Meera Bai, as a respect to her Guru, wrote: ‘Guru Miliya Ravidasji’
Philosophy
‘Sahaj’ represents mystical state: diverse truths united into a singular reality.
Debate between Ravidas and Kabir on the nature of the ‘Absolute’ in manuscripts from Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (18th and 19th centuries).
Kabir: Monistic Oneness
Ravidas: Brahman can be both a monistic Oneness and a separate anthropomorphic incarnation.
His teachings aligned with Vedic and ancient scriptures, embracing ‘non-dualism’.
His concept of Beghumpura:
Signifies a ‘city without sorrow.’
Utopian world free from discrimination and inequality.
Aimed to eradicate untouchability.
Emphasizing the significance of labor (Kirat).
Followed Ananya bhakti: devotion that transcends the sense of duality.
Rejected formal devotion and advocated for personal bhakti through meditative meditation.
Disapproved of rituals, pilgrimages, penances as paths to realize God.
Ravidassia Religion
Originating in the 21st century.
Distinct faith separate from Sikhism.
Followers shape by Guru Ravidas’s teachings.
Formulated a new sacred text, the ‘Amritbani Guru Ravidas ji’ comprising 240 hymns
Mehrauli
Mehrauli city in Delhi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was recently revamped for the G-20 summit.
About Mehrauli City
One of the seven medieval cities that make up the present union territory of Delhi:
Apart from Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Deenpanah Shahjahanabad.
Lal Kot fort was constructed by the Tomar chief Anangpal I around 731 AD.
The Tomars were defeated by the Chauhans in the 12th century.
Prithviraj Chauhan expanded the fort, now Qila Rai Pithora.
Mohammed Ghori defeated and killed in 1192 by Prithiviraj Chauhan.
In 1206, after the death of Mohammed Ghori, Qutubuddin enthroned himself as the first Sultan of Delhi.
Mehrauli remained the capital of the Mamluk dynasty until 1290.
During the Khilji dynasty, the capital shifted to Siri.
In 12th-century Jain scriptures, the location is also mentioned as Yogninipura.
Place of Banda Singh Bahadur execution.
Various Historical Structure in Mehrauli
Tombs of prominent people from the Sultanate (1206 to 1506) and Mughal (1506 to 1857) era.
Tombs of the later Mughals are near the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki nearby Humayun’s tomb near Nizamuddin Auliya’s dargah.
16th Century tomb of Adham Khan and his mother, Maham Anaga:
Reminder of Akbar’s wrath on Adham for murdering his general Atgah Khan.
Built in an octagonal shape with low towers at corners.
Consists of Lodhi-style domed octagonal chambers with ‘Verandahs’ on each side.
Zafar Mahal or Lal Mahal built in red sandstone:
Summer palace of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
The Mahal built by Akbar Shah II in the 18th century, and the entrance gate reconstructed by Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
Bahadur Shah Zafar II, wished to be buried in the precincts of the Zafar Mahal. However, he was deported by Major William Hudson in 1858 to Rangoon.
Also known for the Phoolwalon Ki Sair pass.
Jamali Kamali tomb and mosque contain the tombs of Sufi saint Jamali or Shaikh Fazlu’llah and his disciple,
Jamali was a well-known court poet with the patronage of the Lodhi dynasty and of Babur and Humayun.
Tombs of Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87) and his son, Shahid Khan:
Shahid died fighting Mongols near Multan during Balban’s reing.
Balban remembered for taking strong steps to control dacoity and robbery on Delhi roads in the 13th Century.
Balban’s tomb is housed in Dar-ul Amaan.
A baoli or stepwell known as Rajon Ki Baoli:
Constructed in 1506 during Sikandar Lodhi dynasty. o used to store water o commissioned by Daulat Khan in 1506 CE, an administrator of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Name is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris', the term used for masons
Qutb Complex, close to the North-West of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque: o Tomb of Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 CE):
Built by Iltutmish himself, made in white marble, surrounded by carved arched entrances on the three sides.
Tughlaq-Era Dam Structure
Satpula, located east of the Khirki Masjid, is integral to the compound wall of the medieval fourth city of Jahanpanah in Delhi.
About Satpula
Built in 1340 by Mohammad Bin Tughlaq as a source of water for irrigation along with defence against intruders (Mongol invasions) and as a boundary wall for Jahapanah. The dam got its name from the seven arches through which water used to flow from a canal originating from the Aravalli.
During the British rule, the stream over which the dam was built was diverted.
Spiritual significance
Sufi saint Nasiruddin Mahmud used to live nearby.
People used to believe that the canal water had healing properties.
For centuries, the area used to host a Diwali mela.
Why Was the Dam Built?
Economic distress during the rule of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq
Due to expenses on war in Deccan as well as establishing a capital at Daulatabad (in 1329).
Repeated droughts (1334-1344) caused famines, adding to the suffering of the people. The Satpula dam brought irrigated agriculture for food crops over large areas of land connecting the Four principal cities: the Qila Rai Pithora, Siri, Tughlaqabad, and Jahanpanah. The dam built using quartz (stone from the Aravalli), has eleven bays with water tunnels at different levels and operated heavy wooden gates to control flow of water.
About Khirki Masjid
Built by Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah, the prime minister of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388).
Constructed in the Jahanpanah city.
There are no specific inscriptions on the Mosque on its construction date; the name of the builder is inscribed on the eastern gate of the Mosque.