Ideology

→ The USSR and the USA had very differing ideology and this caused friction between the two superpowers

What was Communism and Stalinism in the USSR?

• ruthless collectivisation of all farms

• Five Year Plans in industry

• dominance of Stalin in communist party and the dominance of the communist party over institutions, purges and elimination of opposing leaders and groups

• the development of a regime associated with paranoia and violence

• all persons were equal, goods and wealth were spread equally across society

What was Capitalism and Democracy in the USA?

• capitalism is based on the production of goods with the goal of earning a profit

• private business and enterprise is heavily focused on with individuals encouraged to make economic decisions based on their ability to make a profit

• democracy encouraged individual liberty, legal and political equality

• elections were free with different parties running for leadership

• governance of the country was divided into separate institutions with influence from hundreds of people instead of one ruling dictator

Why did the USA and USSR emerge as superpowers after 1945?

Stalin’s Role in WW2

• Stalin had hoped an attack from Hitler could be delayed due to the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939

• June 1941, Hitler launched an eastern attack and the Red Army was not yet prepared to face Germany’s army

• Ukraine was invaded and occupied by Nazis however Stalin was able to prevent the invasion of Moscow and the Soviets pushed the Germans back towards Berlin

Overall, the role of Stalin and the victory of the Red Army over the Nazis gave the USSR large influence and respect over countries in eastern Europe.

How did the USSR become a superpower?

• after WW2, the USSR was the no.1 land force power in the world

• USSR replaced Germany as the strong economic neighbour to countries in Eastern Europe and were able to support weaker economies

• the victory over Germany showed that communism defeated fascism, giving political influence over the east

How did the USA become a superpower?

• after WW2, the USA became the no.1 air force in the world

• the USA’s economy was strengthened by War production and the USA was committed to a more ‘open trade’ so market competition flourished

• for the West, the outcome of WW2 showed that the ideals of democracy triumphed over fascism and therefore this political system should be followed for a country to succeed.

Breakdown of the Grand Alliance

The Grand Alliance was formed in 1942 and consisted of Great Britain, USSR and the USA. Their meetings aimed to end the war, deal with territory disputes and post war Germany.

Tehran Oct/Nov 1943

• Discussed the creating of the United Nations

• Discussed Soviet influence in Poland and territory

• Discussed the opening of a second front as the Red Army needed relief from the eastern front.

October 1944 Churchill-Stalin

• percentage agreements, influence of USSR and GB in Europe

• Churchill wrote the percentages down which Stalin ticked

Yalta Feb 1945

• territory in Poland given to USSR and borders drawn up

• Stalin promised that Poland would have ‘free’ elections

• Germany would be split into 4 zones, each zone controlled by a country in the Grand Alliance

Potsdam July/Aug 1945

• Roosevelt died and was replaced by Truman who was much more anti-communist

• Germany was defeated so the countries no longer had a common interest/enemy

• USA dropped the atomic bomb on Japan without declaring this info beforehand to USSR, leaving Stalin feeling betrayed and no longer as powerful as the US.

• Truman was unhappy with the new border between Poland and Germany

• Truman was concerned with the Percentages Agreement not being upheld by Stalin as the Red Army occupied many eastern European countries - making western influence limited.

• The United Nations was officially established

Worsening Relations

Salami Tactics

→ USSR gained increasing political control over Eastern Europe

→ Soviets controlled elections by purging countries of political parties that were non-communist

→Soviets ‘sliced off’ political parties until only a Communist Core remained

→ Then local communists would be replaced by Moscow-trained leaders - this happened in Poland’s ‘Free Election’

Polish Election (Jan 1947)

→ A murder, censorship and intimidation campaign occurred before the election.

→ 500,000 people were deported to Siberia.

→ Polish Peasantry Party had 246 candidates disqualified, 149 were arrested and 18 were murdered.

→1 million voters were taken off the electoral register.

Bierut’s Communists secured complete control in Poland

Soviet Pressure on Iran

→ After the Tehran conference, Stalin left 30,000 troops in Iran, claiming they were needed to help put down internal rebellion

→ However these troops encouraged a Communist Uprising and the Iranian government complained to USSR’s allies

→ GB and USA asked Stalin to withdraw troops but he refused

→ Iran made a formal complaint about Soviet influence in its country during the March UN meeting and due to this new pressure Stalin withdrew the Red Army

Instability in Greece and Turkey

→ After world war two, anti-imperialist, anti-nationalist and pro-communist rebellions occurred in Greece and Turkey

→ USA and GB believed these rebellions were influenced by Soviets

Communist Parties in Italy and France

→ Communist parties in the West grew stronger post WW2 due to economic struggles

→ GB and USA were suspicious of USSR’s influence on their own soil

Fear and Mistrust

1. Kennan’s Long Telegram, Feb 1946

• Feb 1946, US Diplomat in Moscow, sent a telegram to the US State Department

• The Key Points were;

  1. the USSR’s view of the world was a traditional one of insecurity

  2. the Soviets wanted to advance Muscovite Stalinist Ideology

  3. the Soviet Regime was cruel and repressive, justified this by perceiving nothing but evil in the outside world

  4. The USSR was hostile to the West - but not suicidal

→ Kennan’s ‘logic of force’ argument helped harden attitudes in the USA and played a key role in the development of the US policy of containment.

2. Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech, March 1946

• Churchill gave a speech at Westminster College in Missouri, with President Truman sitting just behind him on the speaker’ platform. Basis of the speech;

  1. Churchill referred to the ‘Iron Curtain’ that divided Eastern Europe from the west, it was made from ‘iron’ as no one could see into those countries’ governments or societies

  2. By 1946, the USSR dominated communist governments within Poland, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria, forming the eastern block.

  3. A ‘cloak of secrecy’ descended over Eastern Europe

Soviet Reaction

→ within 1 week, Stalin had compared Churchill to Hitler, seeing the speech as ‘racist’ and as ‘a call to war with the Soviet Union.’ Within 3 weeks, the USSR had taken several steps:

1. they withdrew from the International Monetary Fund

2. they stepped up the tone and intensity of anti-western propaganda

3. they initiated a new five year plan of self-strengthening

The Role of the USA

The Truman Doctrine - the US had the obligation to ‘support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.’

This was a radical change in US foreign policy, a foreign policy which had been traditionally isolationist up until now.

The New Doctrine was in response to unstable governments in Turkey, and in particular Greece.

• The British were £3000 million in debt and could not afford to keep troops in Greece. The US did not want to risk a potential Communist takeover of a strategically important European country

• US military advisers were sent to Greece

Soviet Response

→ evidence of US determination to expand its sphere of influence, and they did not recognise any legitimacy in this new American involvement in Europe

Historian ‘La Feber’s Response:

“The Doctrine became an ideological shield behind which the US marched to rebuild the Westerm political and economic system”

“From 1947 on, any threats to that system could easily be explained as Communist inspired, not as problems which arose from difficulties within the system itself.”

The Marshall Plan - an economic programme whereby European countries can access money and resources in order to rebuild post - war Europe.

Dollar Imperialism - a phrase coined by Soviet supporters which describes the process whereby America asserts its influence over Europe through financial investment and aid into European countries.

Impact of the Marshall Plan -

• 17 states agreed to all imports from countries involved in the Marshall Plan

• all states agreed that Germany needed to recover economically whilst also being controlled

• all agreed to develop hydroelectric power sources together and to facilitate cross-frontier railway freight service

• all agreed to establish overall production targets fro coal, oil, steel and agricultural products

• UK received 3176 million US dollars and Turkey received 221 million

European states were invited to access the Marshall Plan, but were prevented from attending by Soviet pressures.

The Role of the USSR

Soviet Expansion in Eastern Europe

Poland -

1. Stalin tries to create a facade of free elections in Poland to deflect Western criticism.

2. Former President of Poland Mikolajczyk resigned from his post and refused to allow his party to joint the Communist electoral bloc.

3. Britain and USA would not intervene with this boycott as they felt like Poland’s fate had been sealed.

4. Communist bloc won 394 seats after using a campaign of terror and falsified electoral results.

5. Leader of Poland Gomulka although relied on Soviet support, did not want to follow unquestionably their regime and he tried to reject Poland’s application of Comecon.

6. A year later he was removed from power.

Czechoslovakian Coup, Feb 1948 -

Context:

• Czech was moving towards western attitudes and government

• Czech had expressed interest in receiving aid from the Marshall Plan

USSR Intervening:

• Feb 1948, Stalin organised pressure to be put on the Czech coalition gov and 12 non-communist members were forced to resign.

• Czech President Eduard Benes agreed to form a Communist led gov.

• 2 weeks later, staunchly independent Czech Foreign Minister was found dead in suspicious circumstances.

• Jan Masaryk, the Foreign Minister, later told the British Ambassador, “I went to Moscow as the Foreign Minister of an Independent state; I returned as a lackey of the Soviet Government.”

Affect on USA:

• Truman responded calling events in Czech a ‘coup’

• Truman used Czech coup to push the Marshall Plan through Congress

Long Term Events:

→ bloody purges of non-loyal Communists continued during 1948

→ Czechoslovakia remained a ‘weakness’ in the heart of Stalin’s sphere of influence and control.

Developments in Germany 1945-7

Soviet Aims in Germany

→ Stalin explained his plans for creating a reunified Germany that would be brought into Moscow’s sphere of influence

→ The Red Army would directly control the Soviet zone of occupation, while the KPD would seek to win the support of the German workers in both the Soviet and Western zones.

→ To broaden the appeal of the KPD, Stalin ordered his officials to force the merger of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) with the KPD in the Soviet zone in eastern Germany.

→ During this merge at least 20,000 Social Democrats had been interrogated and imprisoned and in some cases even murdered.

The Berlin Blockade: Causes

1. The London Conference, Nov 1947

USA: supported the idea of western European integration but was not keen on dividing Germany into two separate countries.

USSR: wished to avoid the partition of Germany due to economic losses it would suffer, e.g loss of the Ruhr.

The ‘German People ’s Congress for Unity and a Just Peace’: The British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin refused to allow its delegation permission to enter Britain as he viewed the delegation’s members as overly communist, therefore not representing Germany’s overall view on a Central Government.

USSR: viewed this act as an antagonistic and unjustified, increasing tensions.

The London Conference ended on 15th December with no agreement.

2. The Creation of a West German State, Feb-June 1948

The Second London Conference:

1. France, GB and USA discussed the creation of German State

2. France would agree on the condition that USA would station troops in West Germany to maintain peace.

3. GB and USA promised to control tightly the new German Government using the High Commission (final say on foreign policy, security questions, exports in West Germany etc).

7th June 1948: Germans in western zones were given permission to create a constitution for a democratic, federal Germany

Currency Reform: June 1948

→ Deutschmark currency introduced on 20th of June in western states, without consultation with USSR.

Events of the Berlin Blockade, 1948-49

1. Final Meeting of Allied Control Council, March 1948

• British, French and America announced their plans for a unification of the Western Zones and the establishment of a West German government.

• an infuriated Soviet delegation walked out of the meeting and stared planning the creation of an East German State.

2. The Start of the Berlin Blockade, April 1948

1. Soviets prevented military supplies from entering West Berlin.

2. The Blockade officially started after this with water, road or rail transport through East Germany into West Berlin being refused.

Stalin justified these actions by saying that the Western powers violated the Yalta and Potsdam agreement due to the introduction of their new currency.

3. The Allies’ Response, July 1948

• on July 1st, the US and GB began a massive airlift of supplies that were dropped or delivered to the city.

• Operation Vittles supplied the city with an average of 13,000 tons of supplies a day and it lasted for 323 days.

• 2 new airstrips were built in West Berlin to withstand the number of flights coming into the city.

• 13,000 tons of coal was delivered on 15th April 1949

• In Jan 1949, planes landed every 3 minutes.

4. The End of the Blockade, May 1949

Stalin lifted the land blockade on 12th May 1949 at midnight when he finally came to terms with the fact that Operation Vittles could continue indefinitely.

The Berlin Blockade and its failure marked the consolidation of Europe into 2 blocs as Stalin now knew he did not have the power to unite Germany and grow communism towards the West.

Significance of the Blockade on the development of the Cold War

Division of Germany Spring/Summer 1949

West Germany = Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)

East Germany = German Democratic Republic (GDR)

Formation of separate German States

FRG -

→ constitution approved in the spring of 1949

→ election for the new parliament, the Bundestag took place in August

→ Allies asserted dominance in FRG by forming the High Commission which gave them the final say on foreign policy, security questions and exports etc.

GDR -

→ March 1949, constitution of the future East German state was drafted by the SED (Socialist Unity Party) and approved by the People’s Council; single party state.

→ the People’s Congress was elected with voters given a pre-approved list of candidates who represented SED positions.

Formation of Treaties

NATO -

→ North Atlantic Treaty Organisation - a military alliance between Canada, US, UK, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Portugal and the Brussels’ Pact Members.

→ each treaty member will ‘take such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain security in the North Atlantic area.’

→ signed 4th of April and came into force August 1949.

The Brussels Pact -

→ Belgium, Britain, France, Luxemburg and the Netherlands

→ each signatory states would defend the other Pact members against any aggressor whatsoever.

→ Consultative Council would discuss issues of mutual concern.

The Arms Race

Soviet View of US’s atomic bombs

America’s use of the atomic bomb in 1945 dominated security discussions with the Kremlin. Detonation of 2 bombs by the US was seen as a direct security threat to the USSR.

US’s view of USSR’s development of atomic bombs

Some people in the USA viewed the USSR’s development of a bomb as preventing future uses of atomic bombs as both country’s could destroy one another and themselves in the process.

The US continued to build up their atomic weaponry and military bases for deployment.

Soviet Success -

• In August 1949, the Soviets successfully detonated an atomic bomb in Kazakhstan.

• The US no longer held a nuclear monopoly so Truman started the hydrogen bomb programme.

• This led to an arms race between USA and USSR.

Impacts of The Arms Race -

Both countries would have to economically support the development of such weapons so it was an economic race as well as a political one.

It forced allied countries to rely heavily on either the US or USSR so they were protected by that country’s nuclear weaponry.

Histography - The Cold War

1. The Orthodox School

‘The Cold War was a product of the aggressive and expansionist foreign policy of Stalin and the USSR.’

2. The Revisionist School

‘The Cold War was a result of the provocative actions of the USA rather than those of the USSR.’ This approach stresses the defensive aspect of Stalin’s foreign policy when faced with an aggressive USA attempting to gain economic dominance over Europe.

3. The Post - Revisionist School

‘tends to move away from blaming one side or another and to approach the topic from a more objective standpoint’

Blames both sides.

‘Stalin caused the war but the US developed tension and mistrust.’