Evolution of Political Power and Ancient Society in Sri Lanka

Introduction to the Evolution of Political Power in Sri Lanka

Historical Timeline and Early Rulers:
- Historical sources indicate that Sri Lanka was ruled by numerous kings and a few queens in ancient times.
- Prince Vijaya: Traditionally described in historical sources as the first king of Sri Lanka. He arrived from India in the $6^{th}$ century B.C.
- Archaeological Evidence of Early Settlements: Archaeological findings have substantiated that settlements existed in the country long before the arrival of Prince Vijaya.
- Agricultural Evidence: Discoveries of ancient burial grounds in areas such as Beragala and Haldummulla prove that an agricultural society was in a developing state as early as $2400\,B.C.$
- Necessity of Ruled Governance: For such a society to exist without chaos, a ruling system must have been in place. Therefore, the evolution of political power began in the period before the arrival of Prince Vijaya.
The Concept of Authority and the State:
- Consent of the Governed: The authority to rule a country is entrusted to a king or queen by the people. Consent is essential; history shows that rulers who governed against the people's will were unable to maintain power for long.
- Mahasmmatha (General Will): In ancient eastern countries, a king who ruled with the consent of the majority was referred to by the term ‘Mahasmmatha’ meaning "general will."
- Definition of a State: A state comprises the ruling land reigned by a king or queen based on the people’s will (Jana sammathaya), the various officials engaged in ruling, and the people themselves.

The Pre-State Era

Definition and Nature:
- The pre-state era refers to the period before Sri Lanka developed a unified foundation of a state.
- During this time, there was no single, definite ruler for the entire country.
- Power was decentralized and held by a group of wealthy chieftains who dominated small geographical areas.
The Chieftains (Parumakas):
- Etymology: The word ‘Parumaka’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Pramukha,’ which means ‘main.’
- Authority: Their power to rule large or small areas was based on the wealth they possessed.
- Epigraphic Evidence: An inscription in Kothgalakanda (Kandalama area, near Dambulla) dating to $250\,B.C.$ mentions a Parumaka who offered a cave to Buddhist monks.
- Thota Bojaka: In the Kandalama inscription, a Parumaka is introduced as "Thota Bojaka," which means "Theerthaya Anubhava Karanna."
  - Theerthaya: Means "the port."
  - Anubhava Kirima: In ancient language, this meant “to collect taxes and enjoy properties.”
- This confirms that Parumakas held ruling power over specific areas, including the right to collect taxes and donate property.

Early Rural Society: Householders and Gamikas

Householders (Gruhapathi/Gahapathi):
- By $900\,B.C.$ , rural settlements had spread across the dry zone.
- Villages typically consisted of between $1$ and $30$ families.
- Kula: The ancient term used to mean a family.
- Gruhapathi: The chief of a family. In inscriptions from $250\,B.C.$ onwards, the term used is ‘Gahapathi.’
- Periyapuliyankulama Inscription: Describes a householder engaged in the metal trade who cleaned and offered a cave to Bhikkus.
- Householders represented their families in common village activities.
The Gamikas (Gramika):
- Role: The ‘Gramika’ or ‘Gamika’ was the chief of an ancient village.
- Village Organization: Ancient villages were separated by belts of jungle, leading to categories of ‘our village,’ ‘neighbouring village,’ and ‘outside villages.’
- Responsibilities: The Gamika represented the village in inter-village affairs like marriages, exchange of goods, and conflict resolution.
- Selection: A chief was selected from among the householders, likely based on wealth and possessions.
- Literary References: The Jathaka-Attakathawa tells of a poor man borrowing paddy from a Gamika, indicating they were wealthy enough to provide communal aid.
- Leadership: According to Buddhagosha Thero in the Samantha Pasadika, the Gamika was appointed from among the householders themselves. They provided leadership for common tasks, such as maintaining the village tank and distributing water.
- Cooperation: Gamikas often worked together to maintain peace. An inscription at Korawkgala (Sithulpawwa) mentions three chiefs—Gamika Siva, Gamika Sumana, and Gamika Thidana—cooperating to offer a cave to Bhikkus.

Evolution of the Parumakas and Irrigation

The Impact of Tank Systems:
- Early settlements were based around small rain-fed tanks, sufficient for $10$ to $15$ families but prone to drying up during dry seasons.
- Population growth necessitated increased food production and, consequently, more water.
- Ellangawa (Prolapsed Tanks): A sophisticated system where small tanks were connected by canals. This served two goals:
  1. Conserving water by moving overflow from upper tanks to lower ones.
  2. Increasing soil dampness along the canals to facilitate crop cultivation.
Emergence of Higher Authority:
- Constructing these systems required independent village chiefs (Gamikas) to coordinate and make joint decisions.
- The most powerful Gamika within a tank system emerged as the representative for all the villages involved.
- This leader was known as a Parumaka. Because they made decisions for the welfare of multiple villages, they became a group of high-standing regional chieftains.
Provincial Administration:
- There was likely a Parumaka for every major tank system.
- Parumakalu: The term used for women who were engaged in provincial administration.
- Decentralized Ruling: The initial evolution of political power in Sri Lanka was a divided system, best described as decentralized.

The Growth of Kingship and Centralization

Centralization of Power:
- The transition from decentralized (regional) power to centralized (national) power marked the creation of the state.
- State Concept: Power comes under one person (the king) with a specific territory and a centralized ruling head.
King Pandukabhaya:
- Considered the first king to rule the country in a unified manner.
- He defeated several provincial rulers (his uncles) to capture their areas.
- He established Anuradhapura as his ruling centre.
- In his $10^{th}$ year of reign, he marked the rural borders of the country.
King Devanampiyatissa:
- Centralization was influenced by growing Indian Ocean trade. Sri Lanka was attractive to international traders due to gems, tuskers, and spices.
- International Diplomacy: Maintained relationships with the Indian Emperor Ashoka, adopting the title ‘Devanampiya’ and using the five insignia of royalty sent by Ashoka for his coronation.
- Religious and Regional Affability: Invited regional Kshatriyas (from Katharagama and Chandanagama) to the Sri Maha Bodhi planting ceremony to build unity among regional rulers.
King Dutugemunu:
- Pioneered the process of centralizing decentralized political power.
- Unification: Known for defeating King Elara and unifying the whole country.
- Assimilation of Chieftains: He successfully combined regional Parumakas into a national administration. Former Parumakas with regional power became high-ranking state officials or army generals (e.g., Parumaka Pussadeva became Senapathi Parumaka Pussadeva).

Notable Monarchs and Their Contributions

King Vasabha:
- The first ruler of the Lambhakarna dynasty.
- Regulated internal administration and systematized state tax collection.
- Constructed $16$ large-scale tanks to meet the high demand for grain (stimulated by food shortages in the Krishna River valley, South India).
- Divided the country into administrative districts (asthana) and appointed ministers to govern them.
King Bhathikabhaya:
- Encouraged international trade; historical sources mention a Sri Lankan ambassador traveling to Rome and returning with glass beads.
King Vijayabahu I:
- Defeated the Chola rulers after a long period of foreign occupation.
- Protected territorial integrity (the concept of freedom and continuity of the territory).
- Transfer of Capital: Moved the capital from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa. This was a strategic move because international trade had shifted toward Eastern India. Polonnaruwa allowed better control of the Gokanna Thiththa (Trincomalee) harbour.

Concepts and Inheritance of Kingship

Royal Concepts: Rulers adopted majestic titles and concepts to appear powerful and win trust:
- Devathwa: Kingship as a form of godhood.
- Bodhisathwa: Appearing as a future Buddha to emphasize just and fair ruling.
- Parvatharaja: King Kashyapa I appeared as Kuwera (god of wealth) living in ‘Alakamanda’ (Sigiriya); he was called ‘Alakapaya Maha Raja.’
- Chakravarthi (Sakvithi): A concept meaning "dominating the whole world." Used by King Nisshankamalla (e.g., "Kalinga Chakrawarthi Swaminwahanse").
- Nareshvara: Used by King Kutakanna Abhaya, meaning "god Eeshwara for humans."
Inheritance Patterns:
- Kingship usually passed from brother to brother (e.g., Devanampiyatissa’s brothers) or father to son (e.g., Vasabha to prince Vankanasikatissa).
- Priority was given to the eldest among younger brothers or the eldest son of the chief consort.

Statecraft and Administrative Structure

Titles:
- Mahaparumaka / Mapurumuka: Term used for the king after centralization.
- Maha Raja: The title for the supreme ruler of the country.
Administrative Ladder:
- Maha Emathi (Mahamatha): Chief Minister.
- Emathiwaru / Shenapathi: Ministers and Commanders.
- Bhandagarika (Badagarika): Treasurer.
- Bathagu: Officer in charge of the Dining Hall.
- Kothuruge na: Officer in charge of customs.
- Nagaragutika: Administrator of the city.
- Nagara Wudika: Architect of the city.
- Asa Adeka / Hathi Adeka: Officers in charge of horses and tuskers, respectively.
- Rupa Adeka: Officer in charge of making coins.
- Pana Adeka: Officer in charge of trade.
- Kanapedika: Officer in charge of archives.

The Nature of Ruling and Ancient Society

Three Institutions of Government:
1. Legislature: Makes laws. In ancient times, this was the king's court.
2. Executive: Implements laws. Managed by government officers.
3. Judiciary: Provides justice and prevents the breach of law.
Ekthensamiya:
- In the $9^{th}$ century A.D., Sri Lanka operated under a monarchism where the executive and legislature were combined.
- The word is derived from ‘Eka asthana’ (king’s court) and ‘Samya’ (agreement).
- Ekthen Samiya: Refers to the "agreement of the king’s court."
- Wathhimi / Wath himiyan wadala: Refers to the "king's decree."
Ceremonial Items (Pancha Kakudha Bhanda): The five items used in royal coronations to provide prosperity:
1. Walvidunava
2. Mirivedi Sangala (pair of slippers)
3. Magul Kaduva (king’s sword)
4. Sesatha (parasol)
5. Nalal Patiya (forehead strap)