Development Test

Language: 

2 Theories:

  1. Behaviorism → Language is learned by conditioning

  2. Universal Grammar/language instinct/cognitivism → Noam Chomsky's theory that we have some innate language structures

    1. Language is governed by rules → not enough conditioning to learn this from scratch

    2. People produce new sentences that they haven’t heard before 

    3. Children do not learn a language, they learn specific details of a language



Grammars: (general idea that we don’t learn language, we learn word order)

  1. Subject-verb-object (SVO)

  2. Subject-object-verb (SOV)



Stages of language acquisition:

  • Receptive language precedes productive language (listening)

  • Critical period exists → learned most effectively at a young age and higher ability to produce/recognize distinct sounds

Timeline

  • 2 months (cooing stage)

  • 4 months (babbling stage)

  • 12-24 months (1-word stage)

  • 2+ years (multi-word/telegraphic stage)



  • Children will overgeneralize certain rules (for ex. Walk→walked and eat→eated)

Key terms:

  • Poneme = basic unit of sound in a language (ex. B and P, changes bat and pat)

  • Morpheme = basic unit of meaning in a language (walk vs. ed)

  • Syntax = the relationship between different words within phrases/sentences → grammatical rules



Thinking:  

  • 2 systems (1 slow/concious, 1 fast processing)

  • Concept = mental grouping of similar objects/people/events → makes sense of world around us

  • Prototype = the “ideal” example of a concept that serves as a reference

  • Piaget described way of processing new info

    • Assimilation = incorporating new info or example into existing concept w/o changing concept

    • Accomodation = modifying the existing concept to new info

  • Problem solving has 2 strategies

    • Algorithms = step-by-step approach (slower but more accurate)

    • Heuristics = shortcuts (fast but error prone)

      • Availability heuristic = relying on first/most vivid idea that comes to mind

      • Representativeness heuristic = making a decision based on stereotypes

  • Mental set = tendency to continue using strategies that have been successful in the past

  • Priming = introducing an idea to make it more likely that someone will think of it

  • Framing = presenting an idea or concept in a way that influences someone’s perception 

  • Functional fixedness = tendency to assume than an object or technique can only be used for 1 purpose

  • creativity/divergent thinking = ability to come up with new ideas

Biases

  • Confirmation bias = seeking out or placing greater weight on evidence that aligns with our preexisting ideas

  • Hindsight bias = we think past events were more predictable then they truly were

Fallacies:

  • Sunk cost fallacy = tendency to continue doing something due to investment 

  • Gambler’s fallacy = belief that a random chance outcome is more/less likely based on past history



Development:

  • Nature = our biological inheritance in DNA

  • Nurture = the impact on our environment 

Methods:

  • Cross sectional studies (everything at once)

  • Longitudinal studies (same source over time)

Prenatal development:

  • Zygote (fertilization to 2 weeks)

  • Embryo (2-9 weeks)

  • Fetus (9+ weeks)

  • Teratogens = substance that interferes with development

  • Environmental factors already seen in utero (stress, heat, etc.)

Infant: 

  • Maturation = sequence of new skills is generally fixed, though the exact timing varies

  • Gross motor skills = control of larger muscles

  • Fine motor skills = control of hands, wrists, and feet (coordinating visual info)

Piaget’s Stages:

  1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

    1. Exploring/experiencing the world through senses and movement

      1. Object permanence 

      2. Stranger anxiety

  2. Preoperational (2-7 years)

    1. Developing language but unable to engage in logical thinking

      1. Egocentricism = difficulty understanding that others do not share their perspective 

      2. Animism = inanimate objects have life like qualities

      3. Symbolic representation = understanding that one thing can stand in for another

    2. Lacks understanding of

      1. Conservation

      2. Reversibility

  3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years)

    1. Able to think logically about concrete objects

      1. Understands conservation

      2. Concrete mathematical operations

  4. Formal Operational (12+ years)

    1. Ability to reason logically/deductively and ability to think about hypotheticals

  • Criticisms: underestimated children → many of these abilities occur earlier + neglecting culture impact

Social/Emotional development

  • Imprinting = Konrad Lorenz experiment w/ geese

  • Attachment = Harry Harlow experiment w/ monkey

Adolescence: 

  • Puberty = physical developmental changes associated with reproductive maturity

  • Adolescence = transitional phase between childhood and adulthood

  • Growing importance of peer relationship

  • Conflict with parents

  • Egocentricism

    • Imaginary audience = everyone watching

    • Personal fable = you are special so less likely to suffer consequences

Adulthood:

  • Leveling off/decline → physical peak 

  • Decline can be slowed but reduced reaction time, flexibility, and visual/auditory activity occurs

Intelligence:

  • Crystalized intelligence = remains stable throughout adulthood

  • Fluid intelligence = declines as we grow older



Psychosocial development:

  • Erik Eriskon theory = stages (influenced by Freud) → life = series of crises (identity)

Erikson Stages:

  1. Infant (0-1)

    1. Trust vs. mistrust

  2. Toddler (1-2)

    1. Autonomy vs. doubt

  3. Early childhood (3-6)

    1. Initiative vs. guilt

  4. Middle childhood (7-10)

    1. Industry vs. inferiority

  5. Adolescence (11-19)

    1. Identity role vs. confusion

  6. Early adulthood (20-40) 

    1. Intimacy vs. isolation

  7. Middle adulthood (40-60)

    1. Generativity vs. stagnation

  8. Late adulthood (70+)

    1. Ego integrity vs. despair

  • If people do not complete one stage they cannot move to the other

Ecological Systems Theory

  • Individuals’ development is shaped by a series of interlocking systems 

  • Microsystem = people and groups that have direct contact with the individual

  • Mesosystem = relationships between gorupd in the microsystem

  • Exosystem = indirect factors in an individual’s life

  • Macrosystem = cultural events that affect individual

  • Chronosystem = impact of life stanges and time

Adverse childhood

  • Adverse childhood experiences (ACES) = impact people’s development and emotional wellbeing (constant state of stress)



Moral Development:

  • Kohlberg (influenced by PIage) → 6 stages of moral development

  1. Preconventional morality - right and wrong determined by punishment and reward

    1. Punishment = wrong

    2. Reward = right

  2. Conventional morality - views of others smatter 

    1. Avoiding blame

    2. Seek approval of others

  3. Postconventional morality - shared values/principles

    1. Personal values

    2. Self selection of principles 

  • Not everyone will achieve postconventional morality

  • Criticized for lack of generalizability in white male english population



Social Learning:

  • Zone of proximal development (ZPD) = need right level of challenge and support to learn

  • Sequence = task should gradually become more chcallenging

  • Scaffolding = supports to learn → removed as one becomes independent

  • Social activity = provide opportunities for people to earn from one another

Parenting Styles:

  1. Authoritarian = rigid, lacks reasoning behind discipline → unsociable 

  2. Authoritative = firm, encourages independence → self-reliant (good)

  3. Permissive = lacks structure, inconsistent → immature/dependent



Attachement Styles:

  • Secure attachment 

    • Most common

    • Seen as result of supportive/responsive parenting

  • Insecure attaachmenet

    • Insecure avoidant = unconcerned → inattentive parenting

    • Insecure resistant/anxious = inconsistent parenting 

  • Disorganized = fearful avoidant

    • Fears rejection → both avoidant and anxious styles